Una representación de algunos de los cristos antiguos más comunes,
Los libros que hablan acerca de los otros cristos, dan a entender que, en definitiva, debió de existir un molde de prototipo de religión universal, y que ese molde fué dando forma a diferentes salvadores milagreros y a diferentes credos religiosos, variando según el paso del tiempo, la cultura del lugar y demás condiciones del momento.
De modo que la religión cristiana sería, según esta hipótesis, una copia posterior de otras religiones más antiguas, como por ejemplo la religión egipcia y otras creencias sagradas antiguas.
Por ejemplo, se nos habla del dios Osiris, la diosa Isis y de su hijo Horus de Egipto.
Osiris murió pero luego resucitó, según la Mitología Egipcia.
Attis de Frigia, murió supuestamente por la salvación de la humanidad crucificado en un árbol, descendió al submundo y resucitó al tercer día.
Mitra de persia tuvo 12 discípulos; pronunció un Sermón de la Montaña, fue llamado el Buen Pastor, se sacrificó por la paz del mundo y resucitó a los 3 días.
Buda de Nepal enseñó en el templo a los 12 años, curó a los enfermos, caminó sobre el agua y alimentó a 500 personas hombres con una cesta;
Krishna de la India, era hijo de un carpintero; su nacimiento fue anunciado por la aparición de una estrella en Oriente y fué recibido por unos pastores que le llevaron especias como regalos…
Y así hay un largo etcétera de personajes, que, supuestamente, también tuvieron seguidores, que hacían votos de pobreza y que renunciaban al mundo. Unos extraños personajes que también fueron llamados como Señor, Maestro, la Luz del Mundo, etc...
.. también cabe citar a Zoroastro de Persia, Dioniso de Grecia, Apolonio de Tiana, Indra del Tibet, Hesus de los druidas, Prometeo de Grecia, y muchos más.
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el nacimiento en las religiones paganas ( o politeista ,llamenlo como gusten ) son todas en el nombrado "Sol Invictus"
el solsticio de inviero - invierno = diciembre .
La biblia no especifica fecha del nacimiento de Jesus , pero menciona que los pastores estaban pastando , Invierno en Israel , es sinonimo de Aluviones , no creo que maria con 9 meses de gestacion caminara desde Jerusalen a belen en plena lluvia, Jesus nacio en verano , o sea Marzo....
San Pedro fue crucificado cabeza abajo ( recuerda el exorcista ) en plena Roma , hoy es lugar tiene el nombre de basilica de san pedro , ¿ quien le dio ese nombre ?
Un pagano - Constantino - Constantino como conquistador y fundador de Constantinopla , era creyente de un panteom de dioses por doquier .
Pero segun unas de sus visiones ( estrategicas por cierto ) tras una batalla ya perdida . El dios cristiano le señalo el camino para ganar aquella batalla. La gente creyo en el y constantino el pagano , paso a ser Constantino el cristiano . ......es un hecho inimaginable , Constantino debia convencer a su pueblo que el Dios cristiano , era superior a todas sus tradiciones paganas.
El concilio de Nicea -
Nicea , se decidio la divinidad de cristo , su resurrecion , la santa trinidad , los evangelios selectos para la biblia , asi como algunos detalles , su nacimiento por ej. .
Constantino no tenia conciencia de que Horus tuviera tributo el 25 de Diciembre , ni que Apolo tambien , pero si estaba asociado a una en particular , una diosa persa , Mitra .
tras esto jesus adopto tradiciones paganas , por ej. la figura de cristo con el simbolo del sol en su cabeza.
Hay miles de historias como dicen , hay relacion entre el Dios de platon , con el dios de Jesus .
Buda tambien creia en Dioses , pero hacia mas referencia al Brahmma , energia , la energia estaba presente en cada ser del universo , el nirvana era algo tan inexplicable para Buda como lo era Dios para Moises o para Los cristianos .
Sabes quien plantio la idea del BigBen ??
Georges Lemaître - un sacerdote catolico y astrofisico belga . La energia existe , tambien lo comprueban las matematicas .
Although it is believed to represent the time of Jesus Christ's resurrection, the festival of Easter existed in pre-Christian times and, according to the famous Christian saint Venerable Bede (672-735 AD/CE), was named for the Teutonic or German goddess Eôstre, who was the "goddess of dawn" and who symbolized the fertility found abundantly during the springtime of the year. (See CE, V, 224; Weekley, 491)Regarding the ancient fertility goddess, in How the Easter Story Grew from Gospel to Gospel, Dr. Rolland E. Wolfe, a professor of Biblical Literature at Case Western Reserve University, relates:
"In the polytheistic pantheons of antiquity there usually was a king or chief of the gods, and also a female counterpart who was regarded as his wife. This mother goddess was one of the most important deities in the ancient Near East. She was called by the various names of Ishtar, Athtar [sic], Astarte, Ashtoreth, Antit, and Anat. This mother goddess always was associated with human fertility. In the course of time Mary was to become identified with this ancient mother goddess, or perhaps it should be said that Mary was about to supplant her in certain Christian circles." (Wolfe, 234)
The comparison between the Babylonian goddess Ishtar and the Jewish maiden Mary becomes even more evident when it is factored in that in an ancient Akkadian hymn Ishtar is called "Virgin." (Sayce, 268) Yet, like Mary, Ishtar too was the "Mother of God," in this case Tammuz, the dying and rising god mourned by the Israelite women at Ezekiel 8:14. (See Mettinger, 213) Indeed, Old Testament scholar Rev. Dr. W. Robertson Smith identifies Ishtar as the virgin-mother goddess worshipped at Petra who was mentioned by Church father Epiphanius. In a footnote, Smith remarks, "The identification of the mother of the gods with the heavenly virgin, in other words, the unmarried goddess, is confirmed if not absolutely demanded by Aug. Civ. Dei, ii. 4."(Smith, 56) The reference is to St. Augustine's The City of God (2.4), in which the Church father discusses with undisguised contempt the Pagan rites surrounding "the virgin Caelestis" and "Berecynthia the mother of them all." (Augustine, 54) From these remarks and many others over the past centuries it is clear that the educated elite have been well aware of the unoriginality of the virgin-mother motif within Christianity. Yet, to this day the public remains uninformed and/or in fervent denial about such facts....
As demonstrated in Christ in Egypt: The Horus-Jesus Connection, the springtime/Easter resurrection myth occurred in Greek mythology with the tale of Kore/Persephone descending into the underworld to reside with Hades, leading to the death of winter. Her remergence out of the underworld represented the springtime renewal of life on Earth - thus, Persephone's resurrection symbolized eternal life, precisely as did that of Jesus and the Egyptian god Osiris.
Comprising the entombment for three days, the descent into the underworld, and the resurrection, the spring celebration of "Easter" represents the period of the vernal equinox, when the sun is "hung on a cross" composed of the days and nights of equal length. After a touch-and-go battle for supremacy with the night or darkness, the sun emerges triumphant, being "born again" or "resurrected" as a "man," moving towards "his" full strength at the summer solstice...
It is noteworthy that even older scholarship reflects the knowledge of the strengthening of the sun at Easter, as exemplified by Rev. George W. Lemon, who in his English Etymology, published in 1783, gives the meaning of "Easter" as:
"...at that time or on that day, the Sun of Righteousness arose with healing in his wings, like the sun all glorious in the east..."
The "Sun of Righteousness" refers to Jesus Christ, as purportedly prophesied in the last book before the New Testament, Malachi (4:2). Christ's identification as the "Sun of Righteousness," the placement of his "resurrection" at Easter, and his association with the "sun all glorious in the east," all reflect his solar role, serving as earmarks of Jesus himself being a sun god. Indeed, "Easter" or the vernal equinox truly represents the resurrection of the "Light of the World" - the sun - bringing with it the fertility of spring.
That Easter constituted a pre-Christian festival concerning resurrection is apparent from the discussion in the New International Encyclopaedia regarding Easter customs:
"The use of eggs in this connection is of the highest antiquity, the egg having been considered in widely separated pre-Christian mythologies as a symbol of resurrection..." (Gilman, 492)
In his extensive analysis in The Golden Bough regarding the "dying and rising gods," Sir James George Frazer concluded that the story of Easter as a time of rebirth, renewal and resurrection of life in general could be found in the myths of non-Christian deities such as the Greco-Phrygian god Attis and the Greco-Syrian god Adonis, among others.While various of Frazer's contentions have come under fire, frequently from Christian apologists, in The Riddle of Resurrection, Dr. Tryggve N.D. Mettinger demonstrates the dying-and-rising theme overall to be sound....
Discussing Attis along with his consort/mother Cybele (the "Metroac" cult/mysteries), Dr. Andrew T. Fear, a professor of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Manchester, remarks:
"The youthful Attis after his murder was miraculously brought to life again three days after his demise. The celebration of this cycle of death and renewal was one of the major festivals of the metroaccult. Attis therefore represented a promise of reborn life and as such it is not surprising that we find representations of the so-called mourning Attis as a common tomb motif in the ancient world.
"The parallel, albeit at a superficial level, between this myth and the account of the resurrection of Christ is clear. Moreover Attis as a shepherd occupies a favourite Christian image of Christ as the good shepherd. Further parallels also seem to have existed: the pine tree of Attis, for example, was seen as a parallel to the cross of Christ.
"Beyond Attis himself, Cybele too offered a challenge to Christian divine nomenclature. Cybele was regarded as a virgin goddess and as such could be seen as a rival to the Virgin Mary... Cybele as the mother of the Gods, mater Deum, here again presented a starkly pagan parallel to the Christian Mother of God.
"There was rivalry too in ritual. The climax of the celebration of Attis' resurrection, the Hilaria, fell on the 25th of March, the date that the early church had settled on as the day of Christ's death...." (Lane, 39-40)
The festival associated with Cybele and Attis, called the "Megalensia," was celebrated specifically in the spring, with a passion play commemorating Attis's death and resurrection. (Salzman, 87) Dr. Fear thus asserts this mourning period of the god Attis to have comprised three days. In reality, this pre-Christian cult remained popular well into the common era, and its similarities to Christianity were not considered "superficial" by the Church fathers such as Augustine who wrote about them. The parallels between the Attis myth and the gospel story are in fact startling and highly noteworthy, and in reality represent an archetypal myth that was evidently changed to revolve around a Jewish messiah, with numerous details added for a wide variety of purposes. Fear's analysis includes the debate as to when this prototypical springtime death-and-resurrection motif was associated with the pre-Christian god Attis, with various scholars averring its components to have been added in response to Christianity.
Contrary to the current fad of dismissing all correspondences between Christianity and Paganism, the fact that Attis wasat some point a "dying and rising god" is concluded by Mettinger who relates: "Since the time of Damascius (6th cent.AD/CE), Attis seems to have been believed to die and return." (Mettinger, 159)By that point, we possess clear discussion in writing of Attis having been resurrected, but when exactly were these rites first celebrated and where? Attis worship is centuries older than Jesus worship and was popular in some parts of the Roman Empire before and well into the "Christian era."
In addition, it is useful here to reiterate that simply because something occurred after the year 1 AD/CE does not mean that it was influenced by Christianity, as it may have happened where Christianity had never been heard of. In actuality, not much about Christianity emerges until the second century, and there remain to this day places where Christianity is unknown; hence, these locations can still be considered pre-Christian.
It is probable that the Attis rites were celebrated long before Christianity was recognized to any meaningful extent. Certainly, since they are mysteries, they could have been celebrated but not recorded previously, especially in pre-Christian times, when the capital punishment for revealing such mysteries was actually carried out. We have seen cautious reticence expressed on the part of the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484-c. 425 BCE), for example, who declined to reveal the mysteries of Osiris he had witnessed. Herodotus's concerns would not be misplaced, as evidenced by the "witchhunt" that ensued within his lifetime regarding the Athenian politician Alcibiades (c. 450-404 BCE), who was accused of "profaning the Mysteries" and was sentenced to death for his alleged transgressions. (Bauman, 62-64) Under such circumstances, it is understandable that the mysteries were never recorded overtly such that we now have them readily at our disposal....
Concerning the pre-Christian resurrection theme, in Resurrection Dr. Stanley Porter remarks:
"During the Graeco-Roman period, there were numerous cults that had their basis in earlier thought and relied to varying degrees on some form of a resurrection story. Three of them can be mentioned here, although it is not clear that these are different myths. They may be simply the same myth many times retold...." (Porter, 74-75)
In his discussion of this retelling of myths, Porter recounts the comments by ancient Greek writer Diodorus Siculus (c. 90-27 BCE) that the Egyptian gods are called by many names, such as various Greek counterparts. He then addresses the Orphic myths, which include that of the Greek god Dionysus, "first developed around the sixth century BC in the east."Porter subsequently says:
"The cycle of nature, reflected in the myth of Dionysius's [sic] death and rebirth, tied to the harvest, emphasized the promise of new life to those who followed the cult....
"A second cult worth recounting is that of Isis. This cult was arguably the most important of the mystery religions of the Roman Empire. The figure of Isis was identified with Demeter...but developed her own cult, well-reflected in evidence from Egypt during the Roman period, especially in terms of health and overcoming of disease." (Porter, 75)
Next Porter relates the story of the Egyptian god Horus's resurrection from death as recounted by Diodorus (1.25.6), adding:
"The word used for raised from the dead is αναστησαι [anastesai], widely used in the New Testament for 'resurrection' as well. This same power, evidenced also in Isis's husband/brother Osiris, was then in some sense transferred to all later initiates, who went through a process of initiation into the cult of Isis." (Porter, 76)
Thus, in Horus's myth emerges a resurrection or anastasis, using the precise term found in the later New Testament, in the century before Christ's purported revivification. This fact is highly significant in that it demonstrates yet another solid link between the Egyptian and Christian religions....
The Christian celebration of "Easter," the supposed time of Christ's death and resurrection, follows a roving date traditionally placed on the first full moon following the vernal equinox, which has occurred occasionally during the equinoctial three-day period, as it did in 2008.This wandering date indicates that Christ's passion and resurrection are not "historical," with their placement following the full moonafter or at the vernal equinox, demonstrating theirastrotheological nature instead....
The "Christos" is not only the sun triumphing over the darkness as the day becomes longer than the night, but it is also the sun's light in the moon, as the moon waxes and wanes monthly. Hence, the full moon likewise represents the sun's "resurrection," and the theme within Christianity also appears to have been influenced by Osiris's entrance into the moon at the vernal equinox as well. That the date of Christ's death and resurrection is based on astrotheology is thorougly demonstrated in the subject's discussion by ancient Church fathers, including the writers of the Alexandria or Paschal Chronicle, also called the "Easter Chronicle" (3rd to 6th/7th cent. AD/CE). In that text, the authors spend significant time calculating the proper dates for Easter, based on astrotheologicalconsiderations. In any event, the deity reborn or raised up at the vernal equinox or springtime is a recurring theme not representing a "historical" personage but, rather, a natural phenomenon, i.e., Spring.
Sources
Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans, ed. R.W. Dyson, Cambridge University Press, UK, 1998.
Bauman, Richard A., Political Trials in Ancient Greece, Routledge, London/NY, 1990. Catholic Encyclopedia, V, Universal Knowledge Foundation, 1913.
Gilman, Daniel, et al., eds., The New International Encyclopaedia, VI, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1903.
Lane, Eugene N., Cybele, Attis and Related Cults: Essays in Memory of M.J. Vermaseren, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1996.
Lemon, George W., English Etymology or, a Derivative Dictionary of the English Language in Two Alphabets, G. Robinson, London, 1783.
Mettinger, Tryggve N.D., The Riddle of Resurrection: "Dying and Rising Gods" in the Ancient Near East, Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm, 2001.
Porter, Stanley E., et al., Resurrection, Journal for the Study of the New Testament, Supp. 186, Roehampton Institute London Papers, 1999.
Salzman, Michelle Renee, The Codex-Calendar of 354 and the Rhythms of Urban Life in Late Antiquity, University of California Press, 1990.
Sayce, A.H., Lecturess on the Origin and Growth of Religion, Williams and Norgate, London, 1897.
Smith, W. Robertson, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, Adam and Charles Black, London, 1907.
Weekley, Ernest, An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, vol. 1, Dover, Toronto, 1967.
Wolfe, Rolland E., How the Easter Story Grew from Gospel to Gospel, Edwin Mellen Press, NY, 1989.
Contrary to popular belief, Easter does not represent the "historical" crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In reality, the gospel tale reflects the annual "crossification" of the sun through the vernal equinox (Spring), at which time the sun is "resurrected," as the day begins to become longer than the night.
Rather than being a "Christian" holiday, Easter celebrations date back into remotest antiquity and are found around the world, as the blossoming of spring did not escape the notice of the ancients, who revered this life-renewing time of the year, when winter had passed and the sun was "born again." The "Pagan" Easter is also the Passover, and Jesus Christ represents not only the sun but also the Passover Lamb ritually sacrificed every year by a number of cultures, including the Egyptians, possibly as early as 4,000 years ago and continuing to this day in some places.
Easter Around the World
Easter is "Pessach" in Hebrew, "Pascha" in Greek, "Pachons" in Latin and "Pa-Khonsu" in Egyptian, "Khonsu" being an epithet for the sun god Horus. In Anglo-Saxon, Easter or Eostre is goddess of the dawn, corresponding to Ishtar, Astarte, Astoreth and Isis. The word "Easter" shares the same root with "east" and "eastern," the direction of the rising sun.
"The Phrygian sun and fertility god Attis was annually hung on a tree, dying and rising on March 24th and 25th, an 'Easter celebration' that occurred at Rome as well."
The principal Mexican solar festival was held at the vernal equinox, i.e., Easter, when sacrifices were made to sustain the sun. In India, the vernal equinox festival is called "Holi" and is especially sacred to the god Krishna. The Phrygian sun and fertility god Attis was annually hung on a tree, dying and rising on March 24th and 25th, an "Easter celebration" that occurred at Rome as well. The March dates were later applied to the Passion and Resurrection of Christ: "Thus," says Sir Frazer, "the tradition which placed the death of Christ on the twenty-fifth of March was ancient and deeply rooted. It is all the more remarkable because astronomical considerations prove that it can have had no historical foundation…." This "coincidence" between the deaths and resurrections of Christ and the older Attis was not lost on early Christians, whom it distressed and caused to use the "devil got there first" excuse for the motif's presence in pre-Christian paganism.
The rites of the "crucified Adonis," another dying and rising savior god, were also celebrated in Syria at Easter time. As Frazer states:
"When we reflect how often the Church has skillfully contrived to plant the seeds of the new faith on the old stock of paganism, we may surmise that the Easter celebration of the dead and risen Christ was grafted upon a similar celebration of the dead and risen Adonis, which, as we have seen reason to believe, was celebrated in Syria at the same season."
The salvific death and resurrection at Easter of the god, the initiation as remover of sin, and the notion of becoming "born again," are all ages-old Pagan motifs or mysteries rehashed in the later Christianity. The all-important death-and-resurrection motif is exemplified in the "Parisian magical papyrus," a Pagan text ostensibly unaffected by Christianity:
"Lord, being born again I perish in that I am being exalted, and having been exalted I die; from a life-giving birth being born into death I was thus freed and go the way which Thou has founded, as Thou hast ordained and hast made the mystery."
Easter's Roving Date is Astrotheological
In the gospel tale, there are two dates for the crucifixion: the 14th and the 15th of the month of Nisan, and within Christianity the date for Easter was debated for centuries. There continue to be two dates for Easter: the Western Catholic and Eastern Orthodox, thus demonstrating that this holiday is not the historical date of the actual crucifixion of a particular man. The dates are, in fact, astronomical, astrological and astrotheological.
In explaining this roving date, one "distinguished churchman," as Catholic Church historian Eusebius called him, Anatolius, revealed the meaning of Easter and of Christ, as well as the fact that astrology was a known and respected science used in Christianity. Said Anatolius:
"On this day [March 22] the sun is found not only to have reached the first sign of the Zodiac, but to be already passing through the fourth day within it. This sign is generally known as the first of the twelve, the equinoctial sign, the beginning of months, head of the cycle, and start of the planetary course.... Aristobolus adds that it is necessary at the Passover Festival that not only the sun but the moon as well should be passing through an equinoctial sign. There are two of these signs, one in spring, one in autumn, diametrically opposed to each other...."
In establishing the "Paschal festival," Church father Anatolius thus based his calculations on the positions of the sun and moon during the vernal equinox.
Christ as the Solar Hero
The need to time the Easter celebration - or resurrection - to coincide with the vernal equinox demonstrates that"Christ" is not an historical personage but the sun. This fact of Easter being the resurrection of the Sun has been well known for centuries, just as "the Savior's" birth at the winter solstice has been recognized as another solar motif. Another obvious clue as to Christ's nature is the fact that the "Lord's Day" is Sunday.
"Christ is the Sun of Righteousness, with 'divine beams.'"
Concerning Easter, in his "Letter I. for 329" Bishop of Alexandria Athanasius (c. 293-373) remarks, "Again, 'the Sun of Righteousness,' causing His divine beams to rise upon us, proclaims beforehand the time of the feast, in which, obeying Him, we ought to celebrate it…" Christ is thus the Sun of Righteousness, with "divine beams."
The Paschal Chronicle
The Easter calculations were recomputed in the seventh century by the Christian author(s) of the Paschal Chronicle or Alexandria Chronicle, which seeks to establish a Christian chronology from "creation" to the year 628. The Paschal Chronicle determines the proper date for Easter as March 21st and the date of Christ's resurrection as March 25th (or, midnight, March 24, three days after the beginning of the equinox). In his various calculations, the Chronicle author discusses solar and lunar cycles, including the 19-year lunar cycle, by which he reckons the crucifixion and resurrection, concluding: "This is consistent with the prior determinations of reputable men in the calculation of the heavenly bodies." To wit, Christ's death and resurrection are based on astrotheology.
The Chronicle author further confirms that Christianity is a continuation of the ancient "Pagan" astrotheological religion when he states that the "Annunciation of our Lady," i.e., the conception of Christ by the Virgin Mary, likewise occurred on March 25th, the vernal equinox, exactly nine months prior to the December 25th birthdate, the annual rebirth of the sun.
La tablilla de David Jeselshon que ha permitido la interpretación de Israel Knhol. (REUTERS)
8 de julio de 2008.- Sala en el Santuario del Libro del Museo de Israel. Jerusalén. No cabe un alfiler. Algunos periodistas y muchos expertos, arqueólogos, teólogos y profesores no cesan de escuchar y escribir. En el escenario, el investigador Israel Knhol, profesor de Estudios Bíblicos de la Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalén. Ante una expectación académica más propia de las películas de Indiana Jones, Knhol presenta su hallazgo: la interpretación de una palabra clave en la línea 80 de las 87 de la piedra que contiene la que se conoce como 'revelación de Gabriel', defendiendo que la idea de la muerte del mesías y su revelación a los tres días es anterior a Jesús.
Revela que los judíos ya creían antes en la llegada de un mesías resucitado. "Existe la posibilidad que la profecía de la muerte y resurrección asociada a Jesús después de la crucifixión existiera antes por lo que éste podría haber estado influido por estas teorías en el judaísmo", explica Knhol, un poco abrumado ante la expectación creada. "No deseo ir contra ninguna religión ni muchos menos contra los cimientos del cristianismo", comenta intentando reducir el impacto de sus palabras y de la palabra descifrada.
El texto en la tabla de piedra caliza gris es en gran parte ilegible costando grandes esfuerzos a los expertos descifrarla. En una fotocopia del documento que nos entregan en la sala del Museo, se puede leer el término 'shlosha yamin' (tres días) seguida de una palabra prácticamente borrada pero que según Knhol es la palabra hebrea 'hayé', que significa 'vivir'. El texto —visión apocalíptica escrita en el siglo I antes de Cristo— indica que el arcángel San Gabriel resucitará tres días después de su muerte al "ministro de ministros", (en la tradición judía se aplica al mesías), en referencia a un líder local (Shimon).
"Yo identifiqué una idea judía no reconocida anteriormente, que la sangre del mesías es necesaria a fin de lograr la redención nacional. La idea de un torturado mesías que fue resucitado tres días después de su muerte fue adoptada por el judaísmo antes del nacimiento de Jesús. Las ideas principales del mito de Jesús existían en el judaísmo", comenta ante un silencio sepulcral. "El relato es muy parecido a lo que luego explica el Nuevo Testamento sobre la resurrección de Jesús", explica un ayudante en la sala.
En la conferencia internacional sobre los Manuscritos del Mar Muerto, Knohl reconoce que el análisis que hace del texto en hebreo antiguo de esta estela descubierta hace ocho años en la zona del mar Muerto, "puede cambiar la visión que todos tienen del personaje histórico de Jesús".
Su interpretación tambalea viejos debates entre el judaísmo y cristianismo, religión que se basa en el fundamento que Jesús era el mesías que murió y resucitó tres días después. Una premisa que según el investigador ya existía previamente en el judaísmo que nunca ha considerado a Jesús, uno de los suyos, como "el redentor o hijo de Dios".
La nueva interpretación de Knhol está provocando polémica, dudas y precaución. En declaraciones a la agencia EFE, el director del santuario del Libro y conservador de los Rollos del Mar Muerto, Adolfo Rotiman, comenta: "Estamos en el comienzo, en la investigación académica alguien propone y después se abre el debate, por lo que sugiero paciencia antes de sacar conclusiones y titulares grandiosos". Aunque reconoce: "Ha habido una lectura muy creativa, quizas osada".
Pero en muchos foros de Internet, no hay paciencia. La realidad virtual exige reacciones inmediatas. El debate se ha encendido. Hay algunos que escriben que "es la prueba que era una leyenda antigua que los cristianos posteriormente adoptaron y aplicaron a Jesús". Otros responden que "la interpretación de Knhol no es fiable ya que es difícil sacar conclusiones de una linea escrita en una tabla tan vieja y deteriorada".
Esta tablilla está en manos del coleccionista David Jeselshon —vive en Suiza— que la compró hace unos años en Londres de manos de un anticuario jordano. "No me di cuenta de su importancia hasta que se lo enseñé a la paleontóloga Ada Yardeni, que es especialista en escritos hebreos. Ella estaba abrumada y me dijo: ¡Has conseguido una piedra de los Rollos del Mar Muerto!", explicó Jeselshon al diario 'The New York Times'.
Alrededor de 3.500 años antes de Cristo aparecen en los
Vedas, libro sagrado de la India, las primeras referencias al dios
Mitra. Se le nombra como dios unido a Varuna. Ambos formaban una
dualidad inseparable; Mitra era el dios del amanecer, de la luz
y del sol; Varuna es el dios del crepúsculo y de la noche.
Ambos, luz y oscuridad se encargaban del buen funcionamiento de
la bóveda celestial.
Por influencia de los arios hindúes que se trasladaron
hacia el actual Irán y Turquía, ya en el año
1.400 antes de Cristo, se le nombra como dios garante de un tratado
entre los Hititas y el Reino de Mitanni, situado en el actual Kurdistán,
a caballo entre Turquía e Irak.
Alrededor del año 1.000 antes de Cristo, nace en Bakctriana,
ciudad de Persia— actual Irán— un hombre llamado
Zaratustra. Este hombre es considerado por muchos historiadores
como el primer ser humano que cambió verdaderamente la Historia
y la concepción del mundo y de la persona.
Zaratustra recibió una “Revelación”,
proclamando al verdadero dios, creador del Universo, al que llamó Ahura
Mazda que significa “Señor Sabio”. En oposición
a él, estaba Angra Mainyu que significa “Demonio de
la Mentira”. Ni qué decir tiene que ambos personificaban
el Bien y el Mal. Ambos luchaban por imponerse sobre la Creación
y sobre los hombres.
El Mandeísmo, nombre dado a esta revelación, fue
la primera gran religión que tuvo un libro sagrado, el Avesta,
que significa “La Palabra”, y su antigüedad es
mayor que la Biblia, la cual tomó de este libro algunos
de sus pasajes más conocidos.
Historiadores y filósofos confirman que el Mazdeísmo
fue el precursor de las grandes religiones monoteístas basadas
en libros sagrados, como el Judaísmo, el Cristianismo y
el Islamismo, las cuales beben en sus fuentes originales, los dogmas
y enseñanzas de Zaratustra.
Desgraciadamente, sólo se conserva un tercio del libro
original escrito por Zaratustra al dictado de Ahura Mazda, según
le iba siendo revelado. Lo más extraordinario, es que Zaratustra
tuvo doce discípulos, la tradición persa le otorga
la autoría de cientos de milagros y curaciones, incluso
la resurrección de varios cadáveres.
En la religión mazdeísta ya se habla de un diluvio
universal, de un arca en la que se salvaron una pareja de animales
de cada especie y una familia. Se entroniza una Santísima
Trinidad compuesta por los dioses Ahura Mazda, Mitra y la diosa
Anahita, esposa de Ahura Mazda y madre de Mitra.
El Mazdeísmo habla de la primera pareja humana, de Paraíso,
del Cielo y del Infierno, del juicio tras la muerte, de la resurrección
de los muertos y del juicio final, tras la victoria sobre Angra
Mainyu, ayudado por sus demonios, mientras Ahura Mazda y Mitra
serán ayudados por los ángeles y arcángeles.
También anuncia el Avesta, la aparición en La Tierra
de un Salvador, un Redentor de la Humanidad, que vendrá a
enseñar a los hombres su misión en la vida y a vencer
al mal.
Este redentor es Mitra, hijo de Ahura Mazda. Según el Avesta,
Mitra nació en una gruta el día 25 de diciembre.
Una luz resplandeciente situada sobre la gruta despertó a
unos pastores que fueron a adorarle. Unos magos, enterados por
las estrellas de su nacimiento, fueron a obsequiarle ofrendas.
En la gruta, un buey y una mula ayudaban a calentar al niño
dios. Los mazdeístas creían que Zaratustra era una
encarnación del dios Mitra, que había venido a la
Tierra para salvar a la Humanidad.
Mitra, tras su nacimiento, ayunó en el desierto durante
cuarenta días y sufrió una “pasión” que
se celebraba en la semana del 23 de marzo, con la llegada de la
Primavera. Curiosamente es la fecha aproximada en que se celebra
la Pasión de Jesucristo.
Durante dicha pasión, Mitra se veía obligado a matar
a un toro, de cuya sangre brotaba toda la Creación.
Plutarco, habla de los misterios de Mitra en el año 87
antes de Cristo, ya que esta religión, la Mitraica, se extendió por
todo el Imperio Romano llevada por las legiones que la adoptaron
en masa cuando llegaron a Asia Menor. Incluso el emperador Trajano
la protegió y declaró el domingo día del sol
dedicado a Mitra como día festivo en todo el imperio, más
tarde lo adoptó también el cristianismo como día
del Señor.
La religión Mitraica tenía en su liturgia el bautismo
con agua para ingresar en la misma y la confirmación posterior.
En la entrada de los mitreos o templos, estaba situada una pila
con agua bendecida por los sacerdotes en la cual se mojaba la mano
y luego la frente para entrar purificados. Se realizaba una ceremonia
o ágape, en el cual se bendecían el pan y el vino
o agua, y se repartía entre los asistentes como si fuera
la carne y sangre de Mitra de forma simbólica. Se cantaban
himnos en honor a Mitra.
El clero estaba estructurado entre Padres, o sacerdotes comunes,
Amtistides u obispos y Pontífices. Sobre todos ellos gobernaba
el Padre de los Padres, título equivalente al de Papa.
Las fechas más señaladas en el calendario sagrado
de Mitra eran: el 25 de diciembre, día del nacimiento del
dios; el 6 de enero, día de la adoración de los magos;
el 24 de marzo, semana de pasión de Mitra; el 6 de mayo,
revelación del Avesta a Zaratustra; el 16 de mayo, comienzo
del ayuno de Mitra en el desierto; el 24 de junio, Mitra asciende
a los cielos y es proclamado segunda persona de la trinidad; el
16 de agosto, Mitra es nombrado por Ahura Mazda intermediario entre él
y los hombres y se le otorga todo el poder sobre la Tierra y sus
moradores.
La religión de Mitra era una religión mistérica,
es decir, que guardaba algunas ceremonias en secreto sólo
para unos pocos iniciados. Los creyentes en Mitra no eran admitidos
de inmediato a todos los secretos de la liturgia ni se le explicaban
todas las doctrinas y dogmas. Existían una serie de grados,
a través de los cuales iban ascendiendo los fieles según
su preparación y la piedad de su vida demostrada ante los
sacerdotes y compañeros de culto.
La religión de Mitra se extendió por todo el Imperio
Romano. El Cristianismo y el Mitraismo convivieron hasta la llegada
al poder de Constantino el Grande, el cual, creyente de Mitra,
no dudó en aprovechar la ocasión para fusionar ambas
doctrinas. El Cristianismo adoptó la estructura del clero
mitraico; ya que la Iglesia Primitiva Cristiana no tenía
sacerdotes, todos los creyentes eran iguales ante Dios y todos
podían tomar la palabra y dirigir las asambleas en donde
se recordaban las palabras de Jesús y sólo existían
unos encargados de moderar y poner orden entre los asistentes.
Luego se nombraron personas entre los más ancianos y respetados,
para que administraran los bienes de la congregación y repartieran
entre los más pobres las dádivas de los más
favorecidos, pero en las primeras iglesias cristianas no existía
el clero como tal.
Constantino convocó el Concilio de Nicea en el siglo IV,
y lo presidió aunque no era cristiano. Los obispos o encargados
de las iglesias de aquella época, se dejaron embaucar con
los regalos y donaciones imperiales, así como con las promesas
de nombramientos oficiales, que les equiparaban a los magistrados
del imperio.
De aquél concilio presidido por un no cristiano, el emperador
Constantino, nació el Cristianismo tal y como lo conocemos
hoy, con Jesús convertido en Dios, segunda persona de la
Santísima Trinidad y Redentor de los hombres, la estructura
clerical y la mayoría de los dogmas y creencias cristianas.
A partir de ese momento, el Mitraismo fue perseguido a muerte,
sus libros quemados, sus templos derribados, y en pocos años,
proscrito por edicto imperial de Teodosio. No es extraño
que hoy sea difícil encontrar un libro sobre esta religión
que tanto ha “aportado” a nuestra cultura y nuestra
forma de vivir.
No existe ningún original de los Evangelios cristianos
canónicos anterior al siglo V. Todos los Evangelios fueron
reescritos, interpolados, modificados y adaptados a las nuevas
normas eclesiales copiadas del mitraismo. Los Evangelios originales
escritos en el siglo I y II, desaparecieron tras la persecución
implacable de la jerarquía imperial y eclesiástica.
La figura de Jesús fue retocada para hacerla más
parecida a Mitra, Dionisos, Adonis, Osiris, Krisna y otros dioses “redentores” de
la Humanidad. Todos ellos murieron y resucitaron, algunos de ellos
nacieron de una virgen. Adonis por ejemplo resucitaba en Primavera;
Krisna estuvo muerto tres días.
En Egipto se realizaba desde tiempo inmemorial una ceremonia de
iniciación, mediante la cual el neófito era atado
a una cruz tumbada horizontalmente y depositado en lo más
profundo del templo en donde permanecía sin luz, agua ni
comida, durante tres días. Al término de su “muerte”,
el neófito era sacado a la luz y proclamado nacido de nuevo.
El Cristianismo “adoptó” las fechas más
importantes del mitraismo como suyas, para aprovechar la inercia
y la fe de las masas que ya estaban acostumbradas a celebrarlas
desde siglos. Sólo se limitaron a cambiar el nombre del
dios a honrar.
Eón mitraico, representación del tiempo cíclico infinito. Relieve de época romana.
"Los
persas durante la ceremonia de iniciación al misterio de la bajada de
las almas y de su retorno llaman caverna al lugar donde se realiza la
iniciación. Según Eubolo, Zoroastro en las montañas cercanas a Persia,
consagró en honor a Mitra, creador y padre de todas las cosas, un antro
natural regado por manantiales y cubierto de flores y follaje. Ese antro
representaba la forma del mundo creado por Mitra y las cosas que en él
se encontraban, dispuestas a intervalos regulares, simbolizaban los
elementos cósmicos y los climas. Después de Zoroastro se mantuvo la
costumbre de realizar las ceremonias de iniciación en antros y cavernas
naturales o hechos por mano del hombre. (...) No se consideraba al antro
como símbolo tan sólo del mundo sensible, sino también de todas las
fuerzas ocultas de la naturaleza, ya que los antros son oscuros y la
esencia de dichas fuerzas es misteriosa."
Porfirio, De antro Nympharum
Ilustración idealizada del mitreo de Osterburken, Alemania, donde se representa un momento del ritual mistérico.
Dada
la gran difusión por todo el imperio romano del culto al dios de origen
iranio Mitra, sobre todo en los siglos III y IV, podemos entender que
el investigador de este periodo Ernest Renan llegara a decir: "Si el
cristianismo hubiera sido detenido por una enfermedad mortal, el mundo
hubiera sido mitraísta". Esta nueva religión mistérica fue reservada
casi exclusivamente a los soldados, impresionando a los profanos por la
disciplina, la templanza y la moral de sus miembros, virtudes propias de
la vieja tradición romana. Su difusión tuvo lugar desde Escocia a
mesopotamia y desde el Norte de África y España hasta Europa central y
los Balcanes. Se han descubierto mitreos sobre todo en las antiguas
provincias romanas de Dacia, Pannonia y Germania y se estima que en Roma
llegaron a coincidir un centenar de santuarios. En los monumentos y
obras de arte conservados sobre el mitraismo descubrimos una riquísima
iconografía, de fuerte sincretismo grecorromano con la herencia irania,
de la que esta entrada solo quiere ser una muestra. El texto que nos
servirá de guía por las imágenes seleccionadas son sobre todo los
fragmentos extraídos de la obra de Jaime Alvar Los Misterios. Religiones "orientales" en el Imperio Romano que
recomiendo para descubrir también en él los aspectos relacionados con
los sistemas rituales, sobre los que se extiende en otro capítulo.
También anotaciones de Las religiones orientales y el paganismo romano de Franz Cumont, El libro de los Símbolos de Alessandro Grossato e Historia de las creencias y de las ideas religiosas de Mircea Eliade. Las imágenes seleccionadas proceden de internet.
El
tema central en el mitraísmo es la escena de la tauroctonía, la muerte
de toro, en la que el joven dios, en actitud heroica clava su daga en el
cuello del animal, que ya ha doblado sus patas, mientras lo sostiene
por los orificios nasales. Así lo obliga a alzar la cabeza, pero sólo
esta, porque con la pierna izquierda doblada sobre el lomo del toro le
impide que se alce. El sacrificio del toro es un potencial de vida,
según se desprende de algunos elementos que de forma constante aparecen
en la escena. La sangre abundante que mana del cuello es lamida por un
perro, mientras se convierte en espigas de trigo (al menos en algunas
representaciones); también en espiga se ha transformado el rabo del
toro, imagen inequívoca del carácter fecundante del sacrificio. Al mismo
tiempo, un escorpión le pinza las turmas, quizá con el objeto de
apropiarse de su potencia vital, ante la presencia de un cuervo, una
serpiente -símbolo ctónico que parece actuar como anfitriona del óbito- y
un león, así como una crátera.
En esta tauroctonía se observa el rabo del toro transformado en espiga de trigo
Alrededor
de esa escena, cuyo estereotipo presenta numerosas variantes excepto en
la forma de representar el dios y a su víctima, hay otras muchas
figuras dispuestas en arco para enmarcar el acto central: los signos
zodiacales presididos por el Sol y la Luna, los planetas, los vientos,
dos jóvenes portadores de antorchas llamados Cautes y Cautópates, así
como otras escenas secundarias que parecen representar acontecimientos
de la vida de Mitra y que constituyen motivos autónomos en algunos
relieves o esculturas no vinculadas necesariamente a una representación
de la tauroctonía.
Tauroctonía
del Circo Maximo, finales del siglo tercero, Roma. En la inscripción
superior se puede leer: DEI SOLI INVICTO MITHRAE TI(TUS) CL (AUDIO)
HERMES OB VOTUM DEI TYPUM D (ONUM) D (EDIT). En esta versión vemos
claramente también transformarse en espiga de trigo el rabo del toro. El
escorpión pinza sus testículos, mientras la serpiente y el perro lamen
su sangre. Sobre el gorro frigio de Mitra aparece una estrella, y otras
cuatro a la derecha. Arriba a la izquierda, Helios junto a un cuervo, a
la derecha la luna. Abajo a la izquierda, Mitra arrastrando al toro
capturado, a su lado Cautes con la antorcha hacia arriba, en el otro
extremo su gemelo Cautópates con la antorcha hacia abajo.
Cumont
fue el primero que proporcionó una narración coherente e integradora
con la documentación iconográfica, convirtiéndose en el auténtico
mitógrafo del mitraísmo, religión a la que atribuía un verdadero sistema
teológico, cuyos principios había tomado de la ciencia. En los años
setenta se discutió radicalmente la construcción de Cumont, observación
precisa para que no se tome como definitivo lo que a continuación se
relata.
Aparentemente, del Caos original surge un dios, el Tiempo Infinito, identificado con Eón, Saeculum,
Cronos o Saturno, e incluso en ocasiones como el propio Destino. Se
representa como un joven con cabeza de león, alado y rodeado de una
serpiente; sus atributos son el cetro y el rayo, así como la llave que lleva en cada mano (hay variantes distintas) La
imagen de la derecha es la ilustración de la estatua romana de Eón o
Aión (Mitra-Kronos) procedente del mitreo de Ostia y actualmente en los
museos vaticanos. La serpiente enrollada al cuerpo en seis roscas, y
cuya cabeza corona la escultura, simboliza el curso del sol, seis meses
en ascenso, desde el solsticio de invierno al de verano, y seis de
descenso a la inversa. Simboliza también el tiempo cíclico infinito. El
largo cetro de la mano izquierda simboliza el Axis Mundi, mientras
en la derecha sujeta "la llave del tiempo", con las marcas de los doce
meses. En el centro del pecho se encuentra el haz de rayos, a la
izquierda de sus pies, las herramientas del herrero que atribuyen el
dominio del fuego, al otro lado el caduceo el gallo y la piña. Estos dos
últimos son símbolos de fertilidad.
Este
dios primordial habría engendrado el Cielo y la Tierra, representado
por la serpiente, de los que habría nacido el Océano. Queda así
constituida una "sagrada familia" que sería la tríada suprema del
panteón mitraico. El Cielo se identifica con Zeus-Júpiter que, en un
momento determinado, recibiría de su padre Cronos-Saturno el haz de
rayos, con lo que accede el rango de dios soberano desde el que a su vez
da vida al resto de los dioses luminosos que residen en el Olimpo. A
ellos se opone un mundo tenebroso capitaneado por Ahrimán-Putón,
hermano del Cielo-Júpiter, en su condición de hijo del Tiempo Infinito.
Su cortejo de démones, representados en ocasiones como gigantes
anguípedos, intenta arrebatar a Júpiter su trono, pero es vencido y
relegado al abismo del que procedía. Estos demonios tienen acceso a la
tierra y poseen la capacidad de actuar negativamente sobre los humanos y
los impelen a obrar mal. Las
fuerzas purificadoras básicas son dos hermanos, el fuego y el agua,
representados por el león y la crátera, respectivamente. Un tercer
elemento purificador, según veremos, es la miel, asociada precisamente a
la leóntica, uno de los siete grados iniciáticos (Porfirio, La gruta de las Ninfas = De antrum Nynpharum 15).
Su importancia es tal que se consideran como auténticos elementos
divinos y, en consecuencia, poseen un destacado papel en el ritual.
También los vientos, a los que se atribuye capacidad de intervención
sobre la naturaleza, son potencias divinas. El orden cósmico estaba
representado por la constancia reierativa del Sol que recorría el Cielo
diariamente subido en su cuadriga tirado por caballos que simbolizan al
astro luminosos. Éste era objeto de veneración por los mitraístas, así
como la Luna subida en su biga que arrastran sendos toros albos. Los
planetas, partícipes asimismo de ese orden cósmico, tutelaban a los
fieles en sus diferentes grados iniciáticos.
Relieve
de Osterburken, Alemania. Arriba en las esquinas puede observarse a
"los vientos", a la izquierda el carro solar. La escena de la
tauróctonía está envuelta por diferentes escenas de la vida de Mitra y
los signos zodiacales. Abajo en el centro la crátera y al lado el león.
Se encuentra también la siguiente inscripción: D(EO) S(OLI) I(NVICTO)
M(ITHRAE) M(ER?) CATORIUS CASTRENSIS IN SUO CONS(TITUIT)
.
Ahora
bien, la divinidad que en época romana se convierte en el dios central
de ese sistema de creencias es originalmente un dios indoeuropeo que
aparece en una tablilla de Bogazköy, junto a Varuna, como garante de un
tratado suscrito entre los reyes Supilulinna de Hatusa y Mitavanza de
Mitani en 1380 a.C. Mitra encarna el aspecto jurídico-sacerdotal de la
realeza; su propio nombre significa tratado. En el Rig veda indio es
junto con Varuna encargado de mantener el orden cósmico, así como de
velar por la correcta conducta religiosa y moral. En Irán
es el encargado del orden social -bajo su protectorado están los
contratos, el matrimonio, la amistad, etc.-, es juez y brazo armado de
la justicia -por actuar ante el fuego, este se convierte en su emblema-,
es el señor de los sacrificios sangrientos y de la lluvia que permite
el crecimiento de las plantas, tal como afirma el Yasht (Himno)
de Mitra, integrado en el Avesta, pero redactado verosímilmente en
época aqueménida, cuando su gran fiesta el Mitracana, se celebraba en el
equinoccio de otoño. Allí Mitra se identifica con el sol que lo ve
todo. En el dualismo zoroástrico, Mitra es luz en combate permanente con
la oscuridad y es el que hacer huir a los malos espíritus. Este dios
todopoderoso sólo ha dejado testimonio de su persistencia, tras la
desaparición del Imperio aqueménida, en algunos lugares de Anatolia,
como los reinos del Ponto y Comagene, algunos de cuyos monarcas
llevaron el nombre teóforo de Mitrídates. A pesar de ello, la
continuidad del culto iranio en el romano es muy dificil de establecer.Tanto
por las representaciones como por la información literaria, sabemos que
Mitra había nacido milagrosamente de una roca. Con frecuencia, esta
adquiere forma de huevo, lo que hace disminuir las dudas sobre la
influencia del orfismo en el Mitra romano, ratificada por el sincretismo
de Mitra con Fanetón (Fanes), la deidad órfica de la luminosidad
ilimitada que surge del huevo cósmico (ver imagen de cabecera de esta
entrada). Se trata de la piedra primigenia, el mundo embrionario
sometido al influjo de las constelaciones. Es, pues, el primer paso del mito en el necesario ordenamiento astral del cual Mitra es creador y Kosmocrator, como
afirma una inscripción de Roma. Es más, un relieve de Tréveris
representa el nacimiento, pero Mitra con su mano derecha hace girar
medio disco zodiacal, mientras que
con la izquierda sostiene el globo terráqueo. Por otra parte, un
relieve del mitreo de Poetovio (imagen izquierda) de mediados del siglo
III complica aun más la escena, pues Mitra es ayudado a salir de la roca
por dos personajes, presumiblemente Cautes y Cautópes. Sobre ellos, en
un registro superior, duerme un anciano, seguramente Saturno, al que
corona una victoria. Puede tratarse de la representación del sueño
premonitorio en el que se anuncia el nacimiento del invicto Mitra; pero
podría tratarse de un testimonio de la secuencia del tiempo y de la
sucesión de las eras en una hipotética cronografía mítica mitraíca, ya
que la era del Tiempo Infinito es sucedida por la hegemonía de Mitra,
reconocido como Saecularis que proporciona la victoria sobre el
mal y el descanso cósmico. Como parte de esa cronografía habría que
entender la presencia del Sol y la Luna, como axpresión de la secuencia
del día y la noche, de los planetas, que simbolizan los días y, por lo
tanto, la seuencia semanal, del zodíaco como secuencia del año, y así
sucesivamente. La
relevancia del acontecimiento puede constatarse en el hecho de que Mitra
saxígeno es la representación más frecuente en el mitraísmo tras la
tauroctonía. En el nacimiento de Mitra está el origen de todas las
cosas; pero en primer lugar está el origen de la luz, como se desprende
de la asociación, mediante llamas o antorchas, del fuego con el saxígeno
y su identificación con el dios de la luz Fanetón. Unos pastores habían presenciado el acontecimiento por el que el niño desnudo surge
tocado con el característico gorro frigio y con una antorcha en una
mano y el cuchillo sacrificial en la otra. El fuego lo caracteriza como
deidad solar, pero también como dador de luz a sus protegidos; el
cuchillo es el instrumento por el que da vida mediante la muerte de
toro, por ello en alguna ocasión el cuchillo es sustituido abiertamente
por una espiga de trigo. Incluso en una ocasión la escena del nacimiento
se encuentra enmarcada exactamente como si de la tauroctonía se
tratara, lo que permite entender la leyenda de Mitra como una estructura
cerrada, no lineal, por cuanto lo más importante son los efectos que
sus vicisitudes procuran al género humano. En este sentido, la roca no
es sólo el mundo, sino el universo, contiene un significado análogo al
de la caverna en la que tiene lugar el sacrificio del toro, simbolismo
que a su vez se reproduce en el mitreo. En cualquier caso, los pastores
acuden a ofrecerle sus primicias y a rendirle adoración, lo que incide
en la función de Mitra como protector de la humanidad. En algunas
ocasiones la escena del nacimiento se representa con variantes. Un
ejemplo llamativo es el que proporciona un relieve del mitreo I de
Heddernheim, en el que la roca ha sido sustituida directamente por un
árbol, tal vez como consecuencia de la previa identificaación de la roca
con una piña; aunque en los frescos de Hawarte aparece tanto la escena
saxígena como Mitra sobre el ciprés. Al parecer, el énfasis se ha
desplazado desde el simbolismo cósmico a la vegetación, para incidir aún
más intensamente en el carácter de dios protector de la naturaleza que
en algunas regiones se otorga a Mitra y en especial de la producción
agrícola, como se desprende de otras representaciones iconográficas y de
la mención que de él hace Porfirio (de antro) como "guardián de los frutos". Pero, al mismo tiempo, el testimonio de Heidernheim puede contribuir al desciframiento
del relieve de Dieburg en el que aparecen tres cabezas tocadas con
gorro frigio colgadas de un árbol; puesto que en otras ocasiones Cautes y
Cautópates aparecen relacionados con el nacimiento de Mitra, tal vez en
Dieburg tenemos una versión local del nacimiento de Mitra acompañado
por los portadores de antorchas. No es fácil determinar quíenes son en
realidad Cautes y Cautópates; su parecido iconográfico a Mitra es
extraordinario. Pero es probable que hubieran llegado a representar
alegorías diferentes. Por un lado, como habitualmente aparecen
flanqueando a Mitra y uno, Cautes, lleva la antorcha hacia arriba
mientras el otro la tiene hacia abajo, se supone que representan al sol
matutino y vespertino, respectivamente, siendo Mitra el sol cenital.
Pero también Cautes parece asociado al cielo y Cautópates al Océano, por
donde se produce el ocaso del sol. De ahí que se interpreten como
Oriente y Occidente e incluso que se asocien, respectivamente, al Sol y
Luna y, como consecuencia, representen la oposición vida/muerte. Es
precisamente esta última dirección en la que se han realizado las
aportaciones más interesantes en los últimos años gracias a la
perspicacia anlítica de Beck y Gordon. La lectura crítica de Porfirio
sugerida por Beck en combinación con el significado conceptual de la
fisionomía de los mitreos formulados por Gordon, permite asumir que los
gemelos son los agentes de Mitra que controlan las puertas por las que
se produce el descenso de las almas desde las estrellas hasta el mundo
de los mortales y su ascenso a la inmortalidad a través del itinerario
estelar. (Los portadores de antorchas señalarían los solsticios de
verano, Cautopátes, y de invierno, Cautes.
En
el primero se produciría el descenso del alma a la tierra (génesis) y
en el segundo el ascenso (apogénesis); por su parte, Mitra se situaría
de forma equidistante en los equinoccios). En realidad, estos hermanos
gemelos, que están ya presentes en el nacimiento de Mitra y, por lo
tanto, en los orígenes de la creación, podrían ser representaciones del
mismo dios, lo que permite comprender el término triplasios ("triple") que en el siglo VI aplica a Mitra Dionisio Areopagita (Epist. 7,2)
y que ilustra el árbol con las cabezas de Dieburg, con lo que
concluimos esta disgresión que nos sitúa ante la posibilidad de una
realidad tricorporea para este dios, una inesperada trinida, cuya
relevancia en el universo de las creencias mitraicas está ensombrecida
por el silencio. Otro
de los avatares de Mitra es su victoria sobre el toro, al que somete
tras galopar sobre su grupa y después de haberlo asido por los cuernos
hasta doblegarlo. En
algunas escenas se representa a Mitra arrastrando al toro por sus
cuartos traseros para conducirlo hasta la cueva que le servía de
guarida. En el camino encuentra numerosos obstáculos, como si de un rito
de tránsito se tratara, alegoría de las pruebas que han de superar los
humanos. Un cuervo transmite a Mitra un mensaje del Sol por el que le
insta a matar al toro. El encargo es fielmente acometido, tal como se
reproduce en la escena de la tauroctonía. Ésta se ha interpretado como
la creación de todos los seres benéficos, lo que convierte a mitra en un
verdadero dios creador. Pero antes del acto sublime del sacrificio del
toro, Mitra habría logrado algunos triunfos frente a Ahrimán, que
pretendía aniquilar a los humanos, según la versión de Cumont. En cierta
ocasión provoca tal sequía que obliga a la intervención de su rival.
Mitra dispara una flecha contra una roca de la que mana agua cristalina,
con la que salva a sus protegidos y se convierte en una divinidad
protectora del agua. En
un ara de Poetovio Cautes y Cautópes aparecen acompañando a Mitra en
este episodio que se ha relacionado con una de las frases escritas en
las paredes del mitreo de Santa Prisca en Roma, según la cual los
hermanos gemelos habrían sido alimentados con el nectar de la fuente
surgida de la roca.(...) El
nectar con el que se alimentan los gemelos podría ser coincidente con
la sangre eterna que salva, como reza la oración de Santa Prisca tantas
veces mendionada: "Y nos salvaste con el derramamiento de la sangre
(eterna)". Liquido manado de la "fons perennis" que es elpropio Mitra
(así lo denomina una inscripción de Petovio. Pero eso no es todo.
Porfirio asevera que la crátera es el símbolo de la fuente y que por
ello en Mitra la crátera sustituye a la fuente (De antro); así
pues, podemos asumir que la representación de la crátera en la
tauroctonía es un símbolo del llamado "milagro del agua", que adquiere
así su verdadera posición cosmogónica, no como un episodio en la vida de
Mitra, sino como auténtica rememoración de la creación del agua,
simbolismo de los fluidos dadores de vida.(...) Garantizada
la seguridad de los mortales, Mitra da por concluida su misión en la
tierra. Para celebrarlo se realiza un ágape supremo en el que los
comensales de honor son Helios y Mitra, pero en el que, además,
participan los principales compañeros de aventuras. Una vez saciados,
los dos amigos suben a la cuadriga que ha de conducirlos, en una
verdadera apoteosis, junto a los restantes dioses, donde Mitra se
instala como protector de sus fieles servidores.
Relieve
en marmol con escena del ágape supremo. En él reconocemos la piel del
toro sacrificado en el que se reclinan Helios y Mitra. A la izquierda
aparece la Luna y abajo Cautes ofrece un ritón a Helios, mientras
Cautóptes, a la derecha dirige el caduceo al nectar de la fuente que
brota de la roca.
"Both Mithras and Christ were described variously as 'the Way,' 'the Truth,' 'the Light,' 'the Life,' 'the Word,' 'the Son of God,' 'the Good Shepherd.' The Christian litany to Jesus could easily be an allegorical litany to the sun-god. Mithras is often represented as carrying a lamb on his shoulders, just as Jesus is. Midnight services were found in both religions. The virgin mother...was easily merged with the virgin mother Mary. Petra, the sacred rock of Mithraism, became Peter, the foundation of the Christian Church."
Gerald Berry, Religions of the World
"Mithra or Mitra is...worshipped as Itu (Mitra-Mitu-Itu) in every house of the Hindus in India. Itu (derivative of Mitu or Mitra) is considered as the Vegetation-deity. This Mithra or Mitra (Sun-God) is believed to be a Mediator between God and man, between the Sky and the Earth. It is said that Mithra or [the] Sun took birth in the Cave on December 25th. It is also the belief of the Christian world that Mithra or the Sun-God was born of [a] Virgin. He travelled far and wide. He has twelve satellites, which are taken as the Sun's disciples.... [The Sun's] great festivals are observed in the Winter Solstice and the Vernal Equinox—Christmas and Easter. His symbol is the Lamb...."
Swami Prajnanananda, Christ the Saviour and Christ Myth
Because of its evident relationship to Christianity, special attention needs to be paid to the Persian/Roman religion of Mithraism. The worship of the Indo-Persian god Mithra dates back centuries to millennia preceding the common era. The god is found as "Mitra" in the Indian Vedic religion, which is over 3,500 years old, by conservative estimates. When the Iranians separated from their Indian brethren, Mitra became known as "Mithra" or "Mihr," as he is also called in Persian.
By around 1500 BCE, Mithra worship had made it to the Near East, in the Indian kingdom of the Mitanni, who at that time occupied Assyria. Mithra worship, however, was known also by that time as far west as the Hittite kingdom, only a few hundred miles east of the Mediterranean, as is evidenced by the Hittite-Mitanni tablets found at Bogaz-Köy in what is now Turkey. The gods of the Mitanni included Mitra, Varuna and Indra, all found in the Vedic texts.
Mithra as Sun God
The Indian Mitra was essentially a solar deity, representing the "friendly" aspect of the sun. So too was the Persian derivative Mithra, who was a "benevolent god" and the bestower of health, wealth and food. Mithra also seems to have been looked upon as a sort of Prometheus, for the gift of fire. (Schironi, 104) His worship purified and freed the devotee from sin and disease. Eventually, Mithra became more militant, and he is best known as a warrior.
Like so many gods, Mithra was the light and power behind the sun. In Babylon, Mithra was identified with Shamash, the sun god, and he is also Bel, the Mesopotamian and Canaanite/ Phoenician solar deity, who is likewise Marduk, the Babylonian god who represented both the planet Jupiter and the sun. According to Pseudo-Clement of Rome's debate with Appion (Homily VI, ch. X), Mithra is also Apollo.
In time, the Persian Mithraism became infused with the more detailed astrotheology of the Babylonians and Chaldeans, and was notable for its astrology and magic; indeed, its priests or magi lent their very name to the word "magic." Included in this astrotheological development was the re-emphasis on Mithra's early Indian role as a sun god. As Francis Legge says in Forerunners and Rivals in Christianity:
The Vedic Mitra was originally the material sun itself, and the many hundreds of votive inscriptions left by the worshippers of Mithras to "the unconquered Sun Mithras," to the unconquered solar divinity (numen) Mithras, to the unconquered Sun-God (deus) Mithra, and allusions in them to priests (sacerdotes), worshippers (cultores), and temples (templum) of the same deity leave no doubt open that he was in Roman times a sun-god. (Legge, II, 240)
By the Roman legionnaires, Mithra—or Mithras, as he began to be known in the Greco-Roman world—was called "the divine Sun, the Unconquered Sun." He was said to be "Mighty in strength, mighty ruler, greatest king of gods! O Sun, lord of heaven and earth, God of Gods!" Mithra was also deemed "the mediator" between heaven and earth, a role often ascribed to the god of the sun.
An inscription by a "T. Flavius Hyginus" dating to around 80 to 100 AD/CE in Rome dedicates an altar to "Sol Invictus Mithras"—"The Unconquered Sun Mithra"—revealing the hybridization reflected in other artifacts and myths. Regarding this title, Dr. Richard L. Gordon, honorary professor of Religionsgeschichte der Antike at the University of Erfurt, Thuringen, remarks:
It is true that one...cult title...of Mithras was, or came to be, Deus Sol Invictus Mithras (but he could also be called... Deus Invictus Sol Mithras, Sol Invictus Mithras...
...Strabo, 15.3.13 (p. 732C), basing his information on a lost work, either by Posidonius (ca 135-51 BC) or by Apollodorus of Artemita (first decades of 1 cent. BC), states baldly that the Western Parthians "call the sun Mithra." The Roman cult seems to have taken this existing association and developed it in their own special way. (Gordon, "FAQ." (Emph. added.))
"Mithra is who the monuments proclaim him—the Unconquered Sun."
As concerns Mithra's identity, Mithraic scholar Dr. Roger Beck says:
Mithras...is the prime traveller, the principal actor...on the celestial stage which the tauctony [bull-slaying] defines.... He is who the monuments proclaim him—the Unconquered Sun. (Beck (2004), 274)
In an early image, Mithra is depicted as a sun disc in a chariot drawn by white horses, another solar motif that made it into the Jesus myth, in which Christ is to return on a white horse. (Rev 6:2; 19:11)
Mithra in the Roman Empire
Subsequent to the military campaign of Alexander the Great in the fourth century BCE, Mithra became the "favorite deity" of Asia Minor. Christian writers Dr. Samuel Jackson and George W. Gilmore, editors of The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (VII, 420), remark:
It was probably at this period, 250-100 b.c., that the Mithraic system of ritual and doctrine took the form which it afterward retained. Here it came into contact with the mysteries, of which there were many varieties, among which the most notable were those of Cybele.
According to the Roman historian Plutarch (c. 46-120 AD/CE), Mithraism began to be absorbed by the Romans during Pompey's military campaign against Cilician pirates around 70 BCE. The religion eventually migrated from Asia Minor through the soldiers, many of whom had been citizens of the region, into Rome and the far reaches of the Empire. Syrian merchants brought Mithraism to the major cities, such as Alexandria, Rome and Carthage, while captives carried it to the countryside. By the third century AD/CE Mithraism and its mysteries permeated the Roman Empire and extended from India to Scotland, with abundant monuments in numerous countries amounting to over 420 Mithraic sites so far discovered.
"By the third century AD/CE Mithraism and its mysteries permeated the Roman Empire and extended from India to Scotland."
From a number of discoveries, including pottery, inscriptions and temples, we know that Roman Mithraism gained a significant boost and much of its shape between 80 and 120 AD/CE, when the first artifacts of this particular cultus begin to be found at Rome. It reached a peak during the second and third centuries, before largely expiring at the end of the fourth/beginning of fifth centuries. Among its members during this period were emperors, politicians and businessmen. Indeed, before its usurpation by Christianity Mithraism enjoyed the patronage of some of the most important individuals in the Roman Empire. In the fifth century, the emperor Julian, having rejected his birth-religion of Christianity, adopted Mithraism and "introduced the practise of the worship at Constantinople." (Schaff-Herzog, VII, 423)
Modern scholarship has gone back and forth as to how much of the original Indo-Persian Mitra-Mithra cultus affected Roman Mithraism, which demonstrates a distinct development but which nonetheless follows a pattern of this earlier solar mythos and ritual. The theory of "continuity" from the Iranian to Roman Mithraism developed famously by scholar Dr. Franz Cumont in the 20th century has been largely rejected by many scholars. Yet, Plutarch himself (Life of Pompey, 24) related that followers of Mithras "continue to the present time" the "secret rites" of the Cilician pirates, "having been first instituted by them." So too does the ancient writer Porphyry (234-c. 305 AD/CE) state that the Roman Mithraists themselves believed their religion had been founded by the Persian savior Zoroaster.
In discussing what may have been recounted by ancient writers asserted to have written many volumes about Mithraism, such as Eubulus of Palestine and "a certain Pallas," Dr. Beck remarks: "Certainly Zoroaster would have figured largely; and so would the Persians and the magi." It seems that the ancients themselves did not divorce the eastern roots of Mithraism, as exemplified also by the remarks of Dio Cassius, who related that in 66 AD/CE the king of Armenia, Tiridates, visited Rome. Cassius states that the dignitary worshipped Mithra; yet, he does not indicate any distinction between the Armenian's religion and Roman Mithraism.
It is apparent from their testimony that ancient sources perceived Mithraism as having a Persian origin; hence, it would seem that any true picture of the development of Roman Mithraism must include the latter's relationship to the earlier Persian cultus, as well as its Asia Minor and Armenian offshoots. Current scholarship is summarized thus by Dr. Beck (2004; 28):
Since the 1970s, scholars of western Mithraism have generally agreed that Cumont's master narrative of east-west transfer is unsustainable; but...recent trends in the scholarship on Iranian religion, by modifying the picture of that religion prior to the birth of the western mysteries, now render a revised Cumontian scenario of east-west transfer and continuities once again viable.
The Many Faces of Mithra
Mainstream scholarship speaks of at least three Mithras: Mitra, the Vedic god; Mithra, the Persian deity; and Mithras, the Greco-Roman mysteries icon. However, the Persian Mithra apparently developed differently in various places, such as in Armenia, where there appeared to be emphasis on characteristics not overtly present in Roman Mithraism but found as motifs within Christianity, including the Virgin Mother Goddess. This Armenian Mithraism is evidently a continuity of the Mithraism of Asia Minor and the Near East. This development of gods taking on different forms, shapes, colors, ethnicities and other attributes according to location, era and so on is not only quite common but also the norm. Thus, we have hundreds of gods and goddesses who are in many ways interchangeable but who have adopted various differences based on geographical and environmental factors.
Mithra and Christ
Over the centuries—in fact, from the earliest Christian times—Mithraism has been compared to Christianity, revealing numerous similarities between the two faiths' doctrines and traditions, including as concerns stories of its respective godmen. In developing this analysis, it should be kept in mind that elements from Roman, Armenian and Persian Mithraism are utilized, not as a whole ideology but as separate items that may have affected the creation of Christianity, whether directly through the mechanism of Mithraism or through another Pagan source within the Roman Empire and beyond. The evidence points to these motifs and elements being adopted into Christianity not as a whole from one source but singularly from many sources, including Mithraism.
"The evidence points to these motifs and elements being adopted into Christianity..."
Thus, the following list represents not a solidified mythos or narrative of one particular Mithra or form of the god as developed in different cultures and eras but, rather, a combination of them all for ease of reference as to any possible influences upon Christianity under the name of Mitra/Mithra/Mithras.
Mithra has the following in common with the Jesus character:
Mithra was born on December 25th of the virgin Anahita.
The babe was wrapped in swaddling clothes, placed in a manger and attended by shepherds.
He was considered a great traveling teacher and master.
He had 12 companions or "disciples."
He performed miracles.
As the "great bull of the Sun," Mithra sacrificed himself for world peace.
He ascended to heaven.
Mithra was viewed as the Good Shepherd, the "Way, the Truth and the Light," the Redeemer, the Savior, the Messiah.
Mithra is omniscient, as he "hears all, sees all, knows all: none can deceive him."
He was identified with both the Lion and the Lamb.
His sacred day was Sunday, "the Lord's Day," hundreds of years before the appearance of Christ.
His religion had a eucharist or "Lord's Supper."
Mithra "sets his marks on the foreheads of his soldiers."
Mithraism emphasized baptism.
December 25th Birthday
The similarities between Mithraism and Christianity have included their chapels, the term "father" for priest, celibacy and, it is notoriously claimed, the December 25th birthdate. Over the centuries, apologists contending that Mithraism copied Christianity nevertheless have asserted that the December 25th birthdate was taken from Mithraism. As Sir Arthur Weigall says:
December 25th was really the date, not of the birth of Jesus, but of the sun-god Mithra. Horus, son of Isis, however, was in very early times identified with Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, and hence with Mithra...
Mithra's birthday on December 25th has been so widely claimed that the Catholic Encyclopedia ("Mithraism") remarks: "The 25 December was observed as his birthday, the natalis invicti, the rebirth of the winter-sun, unconquered by the rigours of the season."
Yet this contention of Mithra's birthday on December 25th or the winter solstice is disputed because there is no hard archaeological or literary evidence of the Roman Mithras specifically being named as having been born at that time. Says Dr. Alvar:
There is no evidence of any kind, not even a hint, from within the cult that this, or any other winter day, was important in the Mithraic calendar. (Alvar, 410)
In analyzing the evidence, we must keep in mind all the destruction that has taken place over the past 2,000 years-including that of many Mithraic remains and texts—as well as the fact that several of these germane parallels constituted mysteries that may or may not have been recorded in the first place or the meanings of which have been obscured.
The claim about the Roman Mithras's birth on "Christmas" is evidently based on the Calendar of Filocalus or Philocalian Calendar (c. 354 AD/CE), which mentions that December 25th represents the "Birthday of the Unconquered," understood to refer to the sun and taken to indicate Mithras as Sol Invictus. Whether it represents Mithras's birthday specifically or "merely" that of Emperor Aurelian's Sol Invictus, with whom Mithras has been identified, the Calendar also lists the day—the winter solstice birth of the sun—as that of natus Christus in Betleem Iudeae: "Birth of Christ in Bethlehem Judea."
Moreover, it would seem that there is more to this story, as Aurelian was the first to institute officially the winter solstice as the birthday of Sol Invictus (Dies Natalis Solis Invicti) in 274 AD/CE. (Halsberghe, 158) It is contended that Aurelian's move was in response to Mithras's popularity. (Restaud, 4) One would thus wonder why the emperor would be so motivated if Mithras had nothing whatsoever to do with the sun god's traditional birthday—a disconnect that would be unusual for any solar deity.
Regardless of whether or not the artifacts of the Roman Mithras's votaries reflect the attribution of the sun god's birthday to him specifically, many in the empire did identify the mysteries icon and Sol Invictus as one, evidenced by the inscriptions of "Sol Invictus Mithras" and the many images of Mithras and the sun together, representing two sides of the same coin or each other's alter ego. Hence, the placement of Mithras's birth on this feast day of the sun is understandable and, despite the lack of concrete evidence at this date, quite plausibly was recognized in this manner in antiquity in the Roman Empire.
Persian Winter Festivals
In addition, it is clear that the ancient peoples from whom Mithraism sprang, long before it was Romanized, were very much involved in winter festivals so common among many other cultures globally. In this regard, discussing the Iranian month of Asiyadaya, which corresponds to November/December, Mithraic scholar Dr. Mary Boyce remarks:
...it is at this time of year that the Zoroastrian festival of Sada takes place, which is not only probably pre-Zoroastrian in origin, but may even go back to proto-Indo-European times. For Sada is a great open-air festival, of a kind celebrated widely among the Indo-European peoples, with the intention of strengthening the heavenly fire, the sun, in its winter decline and feebleness. Sun and fire being of profound significance in the Old Iranian religion, this is a festival which one would expect the Medes and Persians to have brought with them into their new lands... Sada is not, however, a feast in honour of the god of Fire, Atar, but is rather for the general strengthening of the creation of fire against the onslaught of winter. (Boyce (1982), 24-25)
This ancient Persian winter festival therefore celebrates the strengthening of the "fire" or sun in the face its winter decline, just as virtually every winter-solstice festivity is intended to do. Yet, as Dr. Boyce says, this "Zoroastrian" winter celebration is likely pre-Zoroastrian and even proto-Indo-European, which means it dates back far into the hoary mists of time, possibly tens of thousands of years ago. And one would indeed expect the Medes and Persians to bring this festival with them into their new lands, including the Near East, where they would eventually encounter Romans who could hardly have missed this common solar motif celebrated worldwide in numerous ways.
"The Mithraists believed that this night is the night of the birth of Mithra, Persian god of light and truth."
The same may be said as concerns another Persian or Zoroastrian winter celebration called "Yalda," which is the festival of the Longest Night of the Year, taking place on December 20th or the day before the solstice:
Yalda has a history as long as the Mithraism religion. The Mithraists believed that this night is the night of the birth of Mithra, Persian god of light and truth. At the morning of the longest night of the year the Mithra is born from a virgin mother....
In Zoroastrian tradition, the winter solstice with the longest night of the year was an auspicious day, and included customs intended to protect people from misfortune.... The Eve of the Yalda has great significance in the Iranian calendar. It is the eve of the birth of Mithra, the Sun God, who symbolized light, goodness and strength on earth. Shab-e Yalda is a time of joy.
Yalda is a Syriac word meaning birth. Mithra-worshippers used the term "yalda" specifically with reference to the birth of Mithra. As the longest night of the year, the Eve of Yalda (Shab-e Yalda) is also a turning point, after which the days grow longer. In ancient times it symbolized the triumph of the Sun God over the powers of darkness. ("Yalda," Wikipedia)
It is likely that this festival does indeed derive from remote antiquity, and it is evident that the ancient Persians were well aware of the winter solstice and its meaning as found in numerous other cultures: To wit, the annual "rebirth," "renewal" or "resurrection" of the sun.
"'Christmas' is the birth not of the 'son of God' but of thesun.
In the end the effect is the same: "Christmas" is the birth not of the "son of God" but of the sun. Indeed, there is much evidence—including many ancient monumental alignments—to demonstrate that this highly noticeable and cherished event of the winter solstice was celebrated beginning hundreds to thousands of years before the common era in numerous parts of the world. The observation was thus provably taken over by Christianity, not as biblical doctrine but as a later tradition in order to compete with the Pagan cults, a move we contend occurred with numerous other "Christian" motifs, including many that are in the New Testament.
Mithra the 'Rock-Born'
Mithra's genesis out of a rock, analogous to the birth in caves of a number of gods, including Jesus, was followed by his adoration by shepherds, another motif that found its way into the later Christianity. Regarding the birth in caves likewise common to pre-Christian gods, and present in the early legends of Jesus, Weigall relates (50):
...the cave shown at Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus was actually a rock shrine in which the god Tammuz or Adonis was worshipped, as the early Christian father Jerome tells us; and its adoption as the scene of the birth of our Lord was one of those frequent instances of the taking over by Christians of a pagan sacred site. The propriety of this appropriation was increased by the fact that the worship of a god in a cave was commonplace in paganism: Apollo, Cybele, Demeter, Herakles, Hermes, Mithra and Poseidon were all adored in caves; Hermes, the Greek Logos, being actually born of Maia in a cave, and Mithra being "rock-born."
As the "rock-born," Mithras was called "Theos ek Petras," or the "God from the Rock." As Weigall also relates:
Indeed, it may be that the reason of the Vatican hill at Rome being regarded as sacred to Peter, the Christian "Rock," was that it was already sacred to Mithra, for Mithraic remains have been found there.
Mithra was "the rock," or Peter, and was also "double-faced," like Janus the keyholder, likewise a prototype for the "apostle" Peter. Hence, when Jesus is made to say (in the apparent interpolation at Matthew 16:12) that the keys of the kingdom of heaven are given to "Peter" and that the Church is to be built upon "Peter," as a representative of Rome, he is usurping the authority of Mithraism, which was precisely headquartered on what became Vatican Hill.
"Mithraic remains on Vatican Hill are foundunderneath the later Christian edifices, whichproves the Mithra cult was there first."
By the time the Christian hierarchy prevailed in Rome, Mithra had already been a popular cult, with pope, bishops, etc., and its doctrines were well established and widespread, reflecting antiquity. Mithraic remains on Vatican Hill are found underneath the later Christian edifices, which proves the Mithra cult was there first. In fact, while Mithraic ruins are abundant throughout the Roman Empire, beginning in the late first century AD/CE, "The earliest church remains, found in Dura-Europos, date only from around 230 CE."
The Virgin Mother Anahita
Unlike various other rock- or cave-born gods, Mithra is not depicted in the Roman cultus as having been given birth by a mortal woman or a goddess; hence, it is claimed that he was not "born of a virgin." However, a number of writers over the centuries have asserted otherwise, including several modern Persian and Armenian scholars who are apparently reflecting an ancient tradition from Near Eastern Mithraism.
"The worship of Mithra and Anahita, the virgin mother of Mithra, was well-known in the Achaemenian period."
For example, Dr. Badi Badiozamani says that a "person" named "Mehr" or Mithra was "born of a virgin named Nahid Anahita ('immaculate')" and that "the worship of Mithra and Anahita, the virgin mother of Mithra, was well-known in the Achaemenian period [558-330 BCE]..." (Badiozamani, 96) Philosophy professor Mohammed Ali Amir-Moezzi states: "Dans le mithraïsme, ainsi que le mazdéisme populaire, (A)Nāhīd, mère de Mithra/Mehr, est vierge"—"In Mithraism, as in popular Mazdaism, Anahid, the mother of Mithra, is a virgin." (Amir-Moezzi, 78-79) Comparing the rock birth with that of the virgin mother, Dr. Amir-Moezzi also says:
...il y a donc analogie entre le rocher, symbole d'incorruptibilité, qui donne naissance au dieu iranien et la mère de celui-ci, Anāhīd, éternellement vierge et jeune.
(...so there is analogy between the rock, a symbol of incorruptibility, giving birth to the Iranian god and the mother of that (same) one, Anahid, eternally virgin and young.)
In Mithraic Iconography and Ideology (78), Dr. Leroy A. Campbell calls Anahita the "great goddess of virgin purity," and Religious History professor Dr. Claas J. Bleeker says, "In the Avestan religion she is the typical virgin." (Bleeker (1963), 100)
One modern writer ("Mithraism and Christianity") portrays the Mithra myth thus:
According to Persian mythology, Mithras was born of a virgin given the title "Mother of God".
The Parthian princes of Armenia were all priests of Mithras, and an entire district of this land was dedicated to the Virgin Mother Anahita. Many Mithraeums, or Mithraic temples, were built in Armenia, which remained one of the last strongholds of Mithraism. The largest near-eastern Mithraeum was built in western Persia at Kangavar, dedicated to "Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the Lord Mithras."
Anahita, also known as "Anaitis"—whose very name means "Pure" and "Untainted" and who was equated in antiquity with the virgin goddess Artemis—is certainly an Indo-Iranian goddess of some antiquity, dating back at least to the first half of the first millennium prior to the common era and enjoying "widespread popularity" around Asia Minor. Indeed, Anahita has been called "the best known divinity of the Persians" in Asia Minor. (de Jong, 268)
Moreover, concerning Mithra Schaff-Herzog says, "The Achaemenidae worshiped him as making the great triad with Ahura and Anahita." Ostensibly, this "triad" was the same as God the Father, the Virgin and Jesus, which would tend to confirm the assertion that Anahita was Mithra's virgin mother. That Anahita was closely associated with Mithra at least five centuries before the common era is evident from the equation made by Herodotus (1.131) in naming "Mitra" as the Persian counterpart of the Near and Middle Eastern goddesses Alilat and Mylitta. (de Jong, 269-270)
Moreover, Mithra's prototype, the Indian Mitra, was likewise born of a female, Aditi, the "mother of the gods," the inviolable or virgin dawn. Hence, we would expect an earlier form of Mithra also to possess this virgin-mother motif, which seems to have been lost or deliberately severed in the all-male Roman Mithraism.
The theme of the teaching god and "the Twelve" is found within Mithraism, as Mithra is depicted as surrounded by the 12 zodiac signs on a number of monuments and in the writings of Porphyry (4.16), for one. These 12 signs are sometimes portrayed as humans and, as they have been in the case of numerous sun gods, could be called Mithra's 12 "companions" or "disciples."
Regarding the Twelve, John M. Robertson says:
On Mithraic monuments we find representations of twelve episodes, probably corresponding to the twelve labors in the stories of Heracles, Samson and other Sun-heroes, and probably also connected with initiation.
The comparison of this common motif with Jesus and the 12 has been made on many occasions, including in an extensive study entitled, "Mithras and Christ: some iconographical similarities," by Professor A. Deman in Mithraic Studies.
Early Church Fathers on Mithraism
Mithraism was so popular in the Roman Empire and so similar in important aspects to Christianity that several Church fathers were compelled to address it, disparagingly of course. These fathers included Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Julius Firmicus Maternus and Augustine, all of whom attributed these striking correspondences to the prescient devil. In other words, anticipating Christ, the devil set about to fool the Pagans by imitating the coming messiah. In reality, the testimony of these Church fathers confirms that these various motifs, characteristics, traditions and myths predated Christianity.
"Christianity took a leaf out of the devil's book when it fixed the birth of the Saviour on the twenty-fifth of December."
Concerning this "devil did it" argument, in The Worship of Nature Sir James G. Frazer remarks:
If the Mithraic mysteries were indeed a Satanic copy of a divine original, we are driven to conclude that Christianity took a leaf out of the devil's book when it fixed the birth of the Saviour on the twenty-fifth of December; for there can be no doubt that the day in question was celebrated as the birthday of the Sun by the heathen before the Church, by an afterthought, arbitrarily transferred the Nativity of its Founder from the sixth of January to the twenty-fifth of December.
Regarding the various similarities between Mithra and Christ, as well as the defenses of the Church fathers, the author of The Existence of Christ Disproved remarks:
Augustine, Firmicus, Justin, Tertullian, and others, having perceived the exact resemblance between the religion of Christ and the religion of Mithra, did, with an impertinence only to be equalled by its outrageous absurdity, insist that the devil, jealous and malignant, induced the Persians to establish a religion the exact image of Christianity that was to be—for these worthy saints and sinners of the church could not deny that the worship of Mithra preceded that of Christ—so that, to get out of the ditch, they summoned the devil to their aid, and with the most astonishing assurance, thus accounted for the striking similarity between the Persian and the Christian religion, the worship of Mithra and the worship of Christ; a mode of getting rid of a difficulty that is at once so stupid and absurd, that it would be almost equally stupid and absurd seriously to refute it.
"It is good practice to steer clear of all information provided by Christian writers: they are not 'sources,' they are violent apologists."
In response to a question about Tertullian's discussion of the purported Mithraic forehead mark, Dr. Gordon—honorary professor of Religionsgeschichte der Antike at the University of Erfurt, Thuringen—says:
In general, in studying Mithras, and the other Greco-oriental mystery cults, it is good practice to steer clear of all information provided by Christian writers: they are not "sources," they are violent apologists, and one does best not to believe a word they say, however tempting it is to supplement our ignorance with such stuff. (Gordon, "FAQ")
He also cautions about speculation concerning Mithraism and states that "there is practically no limit to the fantasies of scholars," an interesting admission about the hallowed halls of academia.
Priority: Mithraism or Christianity?
It is obvious from the remarks of the Church fathers and from the literary and archaeological record that Mithraism in some form preceded Christianity by centuries. The fact is that there is no Christian archaeological evidence earlier than the earliest Roman Mithraic archaeological evidence and that the preponderance of evidence points to Christianity being formulated during the second century, not based on a "historical" personage of the early first century. As one important example, the canonical gospels as we have them do not show up clearly in the literary record until the end of the second century.
Mithra's pre-Christian roots are attested in the Vedic and Avestan texts, as well as by historians such as Herodotus (1.131) and Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. 5, 53 and c. iv. 24), among others. Nor is it likely that the Roman Mithras is not essentially the same as the Indian sun god Mitra and Persian-Phrygian Mithra in his major attributes, as well as some of his most pertinent rites.
Moreover, it is erroneously asserted that because Mithraism was a "mystery cult" it did not leave any written record. In reality, much evidence of Mithra worship has been destroyed, including not only monuments, iconography and other artifacts, but also numerous books by ancient authors. The existence of written evidence is indicated by the Egyptian cloth "manuscript" from the first century BCE called, "Mummy Funerary Inscription of the Priest of Mithras, Ornouphios, Son fo Artemis" or MS 247.
As previously noted, two of the ancient writers on Mithraism are Pallas, and Eubulus, the latter of whom, according to Jerome (Against Jovinianus, 2.14; Schaff 397), "wrote the history of Mithras in many volumes." Discussing Eubulus and Pallas, Porphyry too related that there were "several elaborate treatises setting forth the religion of Mithra." The writings of the early Church fathers themselves provide much evidence as to what Mithraism was all about, as do the archaeological artifacts stretching from India to Scotland.
These many written volumes doubtlessly contained much interesting information that was damaging to Christianity, such as the important correspondences between the "lives" of Mithra and Jesus, as well as identical symbols such as the cross, and rites such as baptism and the eucharist. In fact, Mithraism was so similar to Christianity that it gave fits to the early Church fathers, as it does to this day to apologists, who attempt both to deny the similarities and yet to claim that these (non-existent) correspondences were plagiarized by Mithraism from Christianity.
"Regardless of attempts to make Mithraism the plagiarist of Christianity, the fact will remain that Mithraism was first."
Nevertheless, the god Mithra was revered for centuries prior to the Christian era, and the germane elements of Mithraism are known to have preceded Christianity by hundreds to thousands of years. Thus, regardless of attempts to make Mithraism the plagiarist of Christianity, the fact will remain that Mithraism was first, well established decades before Christianity had any significant influence.
"Chronography of 354," en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_of_Filocalus
"Mithraic Mysteries," en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraic_mysteries
"Mithraism," www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=8042
"Mithraism and Christianity," meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/Mesopotamia/Mithraism/ mithraism_and_christianity_i.htm
"Mitra," en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitra
"Yalda," en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalda
Alvar, Jaime, and R.L. Gordon. Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2008.
Amir-Moezzi, Mohammed Ali. La religion discrète: croyances et pratiques spirituelles dans l'islam shi'ite. Paris: Libr. Philosophique Vrin, 2006.
Anonymous, The Existence of Christ Disproved, "A German Jew," 1840.
Badiozamani, Badi. Iran and America: Rekindling a Lost Love. California: East-West Understanding Press, 2005.
Beck, Roger. Beck on Mithraism. England/Vermont: Ashgate Pub., 2004.
Berry, Gerald. Religions of the World. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1955.
Bleeker, Claas J. The Sacred Bridge: Researches into the Nature and Structure of Religion. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1963.
Boyce, Mary. "Mithraism: Mithra Khsathrapati and his brother Ahura." www.iranchamber.com/religions/articles/mithra_khsathrapati_ahura.php
—A History of Zoroastrianism, II. Leiden/Köln: E.J. Brill, 1982.
Campbell, LeRoy A. Mithraic Iconography and Ideology. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1968.
de Jong, Albert. Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Leiden/New York: Brill, 1997.
Forbes, Bruce David. Christmas: A Candid History. Berkeley/London: University of California Press, 2007.
Frazer, James G. The Worship of Nature, I. London: Macmillan, 1926.
Gordon, Richard L. "FAQ." Electronic Journal of Mithraic Studies, www.hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/faq.htm
—"The date and significance of CIMRM 593 (British Museum, Townley Collection." Journal of Mithraic Studies, II: 148-174. hums.canterbury.ac.nz/clas/ejms/out_of_print/JMSv2n2/ JMSv2n2Gordon.pdf
Halsberghe, Gaston H. The Cult of Sol Invictus. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1972.
Hinnells, John R., ed. Mithraic Studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975.
Kosso, Cynthia, and Anne Scott. The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing and Hygiene from Antiquity through the Renaissance. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2009.
Lundy, John P. Monumental Christianity. New York: J.W. Bouton, 1876.
Molnar, Michael R. The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1999. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, VII. eds. Samuel M. Jackson and George William Gilmore. New York/London: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1910.
Plutarch. "Life of Pompey." The Parallel Lives by Plutarch, V. Loeb, 1917; penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/ Pompey*.html#24
Porphyry. Selects Works of Porphyry. London: T. Rodd, 1823.
Prajnanananda, Swami. Christ the Saviour and Christ Myth. Calcutta: Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, 1984.
Restaud, Penne L. Christmas in America: A History. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995.
Robert, Alexander, and James Donaldson, eds. Ante-Nicene Christian Library, XVIII: The Clementine Homilies. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1870.
Robertson, John M. Pagan Christs. Dorset, 1966.
Schaff, Philip, and Henry Wace. A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Father of the Christian Church, VI. New York: The Christian Literature Company, 1893.
Schironi, Francesca, and Arthus S. Hunt. From Alexandria to Babylon: Near Eastern Languages and Hellenistic Erudition in the Oxyrhynchus Glossary. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2009.
Srinivasan, Doris. On the Cusp of an Era: Art in the Pre-Kusana World. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2007.
Weigall, Arthur. The Paganism in Our Christianity. London: Thames & Hudson, 1923
--saturnalia
Las festividades Saturnales (en latín Saturnalia) eran una importante festividad romana. Se las llegó a denominar “fiesta de los esclavos” ya que en las mismas, los esclavos recibían raciones extras, tiempo libre y otras prebendas; eran, si se permite la comparación, Navidad y Carnaval a un mismo tiempo y el cristianismo de la antigüedad tardía tuvo fuertes problemas para acabar con esta fiesta pagana, intentando sustituirla. Las Saturnales se celebraban por dos motivos que ahora mencionamos:
* En las fechas a comienzos de año en honor al dios Saturno.
* Al triunfo de un victorioso general (fiesta del triunfo).
Las primeras se celebraban del 17 al 23 de diciembre en honor a Saturno, Dios de la agricultura, a la luz de velas y antorchas, se celebraba el fin del período más oscuro del año y el nacimiento del nuevo período de luz, o nacimiento del Sol Invictus, 25 de diciembre, coincidiendo con la entrada del Sol en el signo de Capricornio (solsticio de Invierno).
Probablemente las Saturnales fueran la fiesta de la finalización de los trabajos del campo, celebrada tras la conclusión de la siembra de invierno, cuando el ritmo de las estaciones dejaba a toda la familia campesina, incluidos los esclavos domésticos, tiempo para descansar del esfuerzo cotidiano. Eran siete días de bulliciosas diversiones, banquetes e intercambio de regalos.
Las fiestas comenzaban con un sacrificio en el templo de Saturno (en principio el dios más importante para los romanos hasta Júpiter), al pie de la colina del Capitolio, la zona más sagrada de Roma, seguido de un banquete público al que estaba invitado todo el mundo. Los romanos asociaban a Saturno con el dios prehelénico Crono, que estuvo en activo durante la edad de oro de la tierra.
Durante las Saturnales, los esclavos eran frecuentemente liberados de sus obligaciones y sus papeles cambiados con los de sus dueños.
Posteriormente, el nacimiento del Sol y su nuevo período de luz fueron sustituidos por la Iglesia, quien hizo coincidir en esas fechas el nacimiento de Jesús de Nazaret con el objetivo de acabar con las antiguas celebraciones.
Gradualmente las costumbres paganas pasaron al Día de Año Nuevo, siendo asimiladas finalmente por la fiesta cristiana que hoy en día se conoce universalmente como el Día de Navidad.
----
El cristianismo durante muchos años y por sus características, aún hoy vigentes, fue considerado como secta –“superstitio prava et inmodica”, decía Plinio–y, ciertamente, peligrosa.
Muchos escritos contemporáneos a la época temprana del cristianismo la describen como una “vil superstición”. Tácito nos dice que en la época de Nerón:
“Tuvo lugar una catástrofe, si por accidente o por designio del emperador, es dificil decirlo, ya que hay autoridades que defienden ambas posturas, pero se trató de la más desastrosa y terrible de todas las calamidades acaecidas sobre esta ciudad por obra del fuego (…) un rumor se esparció más allá de las fronteras en el sentido de que al mismo tiempo que ardía la ciudad, Nerón se había subido al escenario privado para cantar la destrucción de Troya, comparando el presente desastre con la antigua catástrofe. ..
“Con la finalidad de poner un alto a tales rumores, Nerón suministró chivos expiatorios e hizo caer los más terribles castigos sobre aquellos popularmente conocidos como cristianos, una agrupación que él odiaba por sus prácticas abominables. El fundador de la secta, Cristus, fue ejecutado durante el reinado de Tiberio por el procurador Poncio Pilatos. De esta manera, la perniciosa superstición fue suprimida durante algún tiempo, pero surgió de nuevo, no solamente en Judea, donde tuviera origen este mal, sino también en Roma, hacia la cual es costumbre que fluyan toda suerte de elementos nocivos y desgraciados desde todos los rincones de planeta para despertar la simpatía de no pocos.
“Los primeros en ser apresados fueron aquellos que confesaron; posteriormente, y con base en la información suministrada por estos, una vasta multitud fue encarcelada, no tanto bajo el cargo de conducta incendiaria, como por su odio a la humanidad”
Plinio el Joven (62-113 DC) fue enviado a Asia Menor por Trajano y Plinio escribió en un momento dado al emperador pidiéndole consejo sobre cómo tratar este tema. Es muy interesante tener esta perspectiva del cristianismo temprano.
“Sin embargo, afirman que su culpa o error sencillamente se limita a que tenían la costumbre de reunirse en un día específico antes de alba para cantar en forma de antífona cierto himno dedicado a Cristo de la misma forma que lo harían hacia un dios, y a comprometerse por medio de un pacto, no para la ejecución de crimen alguno, sino más bien para refrenarse de cometar robo, adulterio o incumplimiento de promesas, así como para no rehusar devolución de cualquier tesoro que se hubiera encomendado a su custodia; cuando esta ceremonia terminaba, solían retirarse para reunirse posteriormente con la intencion de celebrar una fiesta, si bien una de carácter ordinario e inocente. Pero habían abandonado incluso esta costumbre luego de mi edicto en el que, siguiendo vuestras prppias instrucciones, yo había prohibido la existencia de cualquier tipo de confraternidad. Es así que consideré necesario extraer la verdad, aun mediante el uso de la tortura, de dos doncellas sirvientes a las que llaman diáconas. No descubrí otra cosa excepto una vil superstición llevada a inmoderados extremos.
“El contagio de la superstición se ha extendido no solamente a las ciudades sino también a las villas y a los distritos de la campiña. Aun así, todavía hay tiempo de detenerlo y curarlo. Es bien conocido que algunos templos, otrora desolados, han comenzado a ser frecuentados de nuevo y que los ritos establecidos y abandonados por largo tiempo han sido revividos; además se ha descubierto una venta clandestina del forraje utilizado con las víctimas del sacrificio, si bien se han detectado pocos compradores hasta el momento. Así pues es fácil conjeturar que es posible reformar a un buen nímiero de transgresores, si se les ofrece una oportunidad de arrepentirse”.
(Extractos extraídos de “Seccions of Tacitus Vol II, Mac L Kendrick, Paul and Herbert M. Howe 1952 citado en “La historia secreta de Mundo” de Laura Knight.)
Es muy interesante tener esta perspectiva mucho menos idealizada de los orígenes de cristianismo donde, a tenor de las cartas y textos de la época, se odiaba a los cristianos por sus prácticas viles llevadas a inmoderados extremos y perniciosas supesticiones calificadas además como “odio a la humanidad”. ¿Qué podía ser considerado así desde el punto de vista de la visión pagana de la época?. Lo único que se me ocurre personalmente es que estos cristianos eran practicantes del sacrificio humano.
Parts of the Bible were written by people who lied about their identity, an author has claimed.
Bart D Ehrman claims many books of the New Testament were forged by people pretending to be the apostles Peter, Paul or James.
Writing in the Huffington Post, Professor Ehrman, best selling author ofMisquoting Jesus and Jesus, Interrupted , said religious scholars were well aware of the 'lies' of the Bible.
While some were happy to acknowledge them others refer to them aspseudepigrapha - meaning a falsely attributed work -, he wrote.
In his new book , Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are , Professor Ehrman claims The Second Epistle of Peter - or 2 Peter - was forged.
'...scholars everywhere - except for our friends among the fundamentalists - will tell you that there is no way on God's green earth that Peter wrote the book.
'Someone else wrote it claiming to be Peter,' he writes.
He then suggests scholars who say it was acceptable in the ancient world for someone to write a book in the name of someone else, are wrong.
'If you look at what ancient people actually said about the practice, you'll see that they invariably called it lying and condemned it as a deceitful practice, even in Christian circles,' Professor Ehrman writes.
Many scholars think six of the 13 letters allegedly written by Paul were actually authored by somebody else claiming to be Paul, Professor Ehrman claims.
'In the ancient world, books like that were labelled as pseudoi - lies,' he writes.
Professor Ehrman also claims the author of the book of 1 Timothy claimed to be Paul but in actual fact was someone living after Paul had died.
The author then used the apostle's name to address a problem he saw in church, according to Professor Ehrman.
'Women were speaking out, exercising authority and teaching men. That had to stop,' he writes.
'The author told women to be silent and submissive, and reminded his readers about what happened the first time a woman was allowed to exercise authority over a man, in that little incident in the garden of Eden.
'No, the author argued, if women wanted to be saved, they were to have babies (1 Tim. 2:11-15).'
Paul is known as one of history's great misogynists, largely based on this passage from the Bible.
But Professor Ehrman argues this label is not necessarily justified because he wasn't the one to write it.
'And why does it matter? Because the passage is still used by church leaders today to oppress and silence women,' writes Professor Ehrman.
'Why are there no women priests in the Catholic Church? Why are women not allowed to preach in conservative evangelical churches? Why are there churches today that do not allow women even to speak?
'In no small measure it is because Paul allegedly taught that women had to be silent, submissive and pregnant.
'Except that the person who taught this was not Paul, but someone lying about his identity so that his readers would think he was Paul.'
Professor Ehrman then goes on to write how the Bible is actually filled with the need for 'truth' but many of its writers were telling a lie.
'It appears that some of the New Testament writers, such as the authors of 2 Peter, 1 Timothy and Ephesians, felt they were perfectly justified to lie in order to tell the truth,' he writes.
'But we today can at least evaluate their claims and realise just how human, and fallible, they were.'
The Roman deity Mithras appears in the historical
record in the late 1st century A.D., and disappears from it in the late
4th century A.D. Unlike the major mythological figures of Graeco-Roman
religion, such as Jupiter and Hercules, no ancient source preserves the
mythology of the god. All of our information is therefore derived from
depictions on monuments, and the limited mentions of the cult in
literary sources.
The temples of Mithras were always an underground cave, featuring a relief of Mithras killing the bull. This "tauroctony",
as it is known today, appears in the same format everywhere, but with
minor variations. Other standard themes appear in the iconography.
The cult was all male. There were seven degrees of initiation. Different ritual meals were associated with each stage.
The modern study of Mithras begins just before 1900 with Franz Cumont's Textes et Monuments (TMMM).
This two volume work collected all the ancient evidence. Cumont
presumed that Mithras was merely the Roman form of the ancient
Indo-Persian deity Mitra or Mithra. In the mid-50's Cumont's pupil
Maarten Vermaseren published a new collection of monuments, the CIMRM,
which added the archaeological discoveries of the last 50 years, but
also highlighted how poorly the archaeology supported the Cumontian
theory. At the 1971 international conference on Mithraic studies,
Cumont's theory was abandoned in favour of a Roman origin for the cult.
Vermaseren himself rejected Cumont's theory in 1975.1
The ancient writer Justin Martyr referred to one of
the ritual meals of the cult as being a parody of Christianity. In some
speculative passages Cumont sometimes tried to interpret some Mithraic
ideas in Christian terms. Consequently various modern myths came into
being. These appear as fact in older scholarly literature, and
sometimes in non-specialist academic literature even today. For the
most part these errors appear in non-scholarly literature.
1. The cult myth
The basic version of the cult myth is attested by
literary sources, but, primarily, by depictions in the cult images in
the temples. The latter are difficult to interpret.
It is certain that Mithras is born from a rock.2
He is depicted in his temples hunting down and slaying a bull in the
tauroctony (see section below). He then meets with the sun, who kneels
to him. The two then shake hands, and dine on bull parts. Little is
known about the beliefs associated with this.3 The ancient histories of the cult by Euboulos and Pallas have perished.4 The name of the god was certainly given as Mithras (with an 's') in Latin monuments, although Mithra may have been used in Greek.5
Some monuments show additional episodes of the myth. In the paintings at Dura Europos (CIMRM 42),
the story begins with Jupiter fighting against the giants. This is
followed by a mysterious depiction of a bearded figure reclining against
a rock, with the leaves of a tree above. This figure is sometimes
thought to be Oceanus. Then the normal myth is depicted. The same
episodes appear as a prologue also in CIMRM 1430, a relief from Virunum, and CIMRM 1359 from Germany.
In the painted Mithraeum at Hawarte in Syria,
further scenes appear. Mithras is depicted with a chained demon at his
feet, while in another scene he is depicted attacking a city manned by
the demons. These scenes appear to follow the normal myth.
In antiquity, texts refer to "the mysteries of Mithras", and to its adherents, as "the mysteries of the Persians."6 But there is great dispute about whether there is really any link with Persia, and its origins are quite obscure.7
The mysteries of Mithras were not practiced until the 1st century AD.8 The unique underground temples or Mithraea appear suddenly in the archaeology in the last quarter of the 1st century AD.9
During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the archaeology
includes a great many Mithraea, some of which are rebuilt and enlarged
during this period.
It is difficult to trace when the cult of Mithras
came to an end. Beck states that "Quite early in the [fourth] century
the religion was as good as dead throughout the empire."10
Inscriptions from the 4th century are few. Clauss states that
inscriptions show Mithras as one of the cults listed on inscriptions by
pagan senators in Rome as part of the "pagan revival" among the elite.11 There is no evidence that the cult still existed in the 5th century.12
Much about the cult of Mithras is only known from
reliefs and sculptures. There have been many attempts to interpret this
material.
3.1. The Mithraeum
CIMRM 229. The Mithraeum at the Baths of Mithras in Ostia Antica.
The architecture of a temple of Mithras is very distinctive.13 Porphyry, quoting the lost handbook of Eubolus14 states that Mithras was worshipped in a rock cave. The Mithraeum reproduces this cave, in which Mithras killed the bull.15 The format of the room involved a central aisle, with a raised podium on either side.16
Mithraic temples are common in the empire; although
very unevenly distributed, with considerable numbers found in Rome,
Ostia, Numidia, Dalmatia, Britain and along the Rhine/Danube frontier;
while being much less common in Greece, Egypt, and Syria.17 More than 420 Mithraic sites have now been identified.18
Mithraea are commonly located close to springs or
streams; fresh water appears to have been required for some Mithraic
rituals, and a basin is often incorporated into the structure.19
There is usually a narthex or ante-chamber at the entrance, and often
other ancillary rooms for storage and the preparation of food. The term mithraeum is modern; in Italy inscriptions usually call it a spelaeum; outside Italy it is referred to as templum.20
In Rome and Italy at least, the temples of Mithras were usually set up in public buildings, rather than private houses.21
CIMRM 1283. Tauroctony from Neuenheim near Heidelberg, with side-panels.
In every Mithraeum the centrepiece was a representation of Mithras killing a sacred bull; the so-called tauroctony.22
The image may be a relief, or free-standing, and
side details may be present or omitted. The centre-piece is Mithras
clothed in Anatolian costume and wearing a Phrygian cap; who is kneeling
on the exhausted bull, holding it by the nostrils with his left hand,
and stabbing it with his right. As he does so, he looks over his
shoulder towards the figure of Sol. A dog and a snake reach up towards
the blood.23
A scorpion seizes the bull's genitals. The two torch-bearers are on
either side, dressed like Mithras, Cautes with his torch pointing up and
Cautopates with his torch pointing down.24
The event takes place in a cavern, into which
Mithras has carried the bull, after having hunted it, ridden it and
overwhelmed its strength.25
Sometimes the cavern is surrounded by a circle, on which the twelve
signs of the zodiac appear. Outside the cavern, top left, is Sol the
sun, with his flaming crown, often driving a quadriga. A ray of light
often reaches down from the sun to touch Mithras. Top right is Luna,
with her crescent moon, who may be depicted driving a chariot.
In some depictions, the central tauroctony is framed
by a series of subsidiary scenes to the left, top and right,
illustrating events in the Mithras narrative; Mithras being born from
the rock, the water miracle, the hunting and riding of the bull, meeting
Sol who kneels to him, shaking hands with Sol and sharing a meal of
bull-parts with him, and ascending to the heavens in a chariot.
CIMRM 641.
Sol and Mithras banqueting with Luna and the twin divinities Cautes and
Cautopates, his attendants. Marble, side B of a two-sided relief from
Fioro Romano, 2nd or 3rd century AD.
The second most important scene after the tauroctony in Mithraic art is the so-called banquet scene.27
The two scenes are sometimes sculpted on the opposite sides of the same
relief.
The banquet scene features Mithras and the Sun god banqueting
on the hide of the slaughtered bull. On the specific banquet scene on
the Fioro Romano relief, one of the torchbearers points a caduceus
towards the base of an altar, where flames appear to spring up. Robert
Turcan has argued that since the caduceus is an attribute of Mercury,
and in mythology Mercury is depicted as a psychopomp, the eliciting of
flames in this scene is referring to the dispatch of human souls and
expressing the Mithraic doctrine on this matter. Turcan also connects
this event to the tauroctony: the blood of the slain bull has soaked the
ground at the base of the altar, and from the blood the souls are
elicited in flames by the caduceus.28
A unique feature of the Mithraeum is the naked lion-headed figure sometimes found in Mithraic temples.29
He is entwined by a serpent, with the snake's head often resting on the
lion's head. The lion's mouth is often open. He is usually represented
having four wings, two keys (sometimes a single key) and a scepter in
his hand. Sometimes the figure is standing on a globe inscribed with a
diagonal cross. A more scarcely represented variant of the figure with a
human head is also found. Although animal-headed figures are prevalent
in contemporary Egyptian and Gnostic mythological representations, the Leontocephaline is entirely restricted to Mithraic art.30
Although the exact identity of the lion-headed
figure is debated by scholars, it is largely agreed that the god is
associated with time and seasonal change.31 An example is CIMRM 78-79 from the Mithraeum in Sidon.
In one monument only the name Arimanius
appears against what seems to be the same figure. This label is
probably derived from the Greek translation of the name of the
Zoroastrian demon Ahriman. The inscriptions refer to "Arimanius" as
"deus" (= "a god").32
4. Initiation into the mysteries of Mithras
In the Byzantine encylopedia known as the Suda
there is an entry "Mithras", which states that "no one was permitted to
be initiated into them (the mysteries of Mithras), until he should show
himself holy and steadfast by undergoing several graduated tests."33
Gregory Nazianzen refers to the "tests in the mysteries of Mithras".34
A series of five frescos at the Mithraeum of ancient
Capua (today Santa Maria Capua Vetere in Campania) depict what may be
the rituals for some of the grades of initiation. They are very damaged
and hard to interpret.
The first shows a blindfolded naked man;
in the
second he is also kneeling and his hands are bound behind him;
in the
third he is no longer blindfolded and is being crowned;
in the fourth he
is being restrained from rising;
in the fifth he is lying on the ground
as if dead.35
Seven grades of initiation into the mysteries of Mithras are listed by St. Jerome.36
There is probably a connection between the number of grades and the
seven planets, and there is evidence commending the priests to the
protection of the god for each planet.37
A mosaic in the Ostia Mithraeum of Felicissimus depicts these grades,
with heraldic emblems that are connected either to the grades, although
they may just be symbols of the planets.38
It has been suggested, however, that most followers of Mithras were
simply initiated, and the seven grades are in fact grades of priests.39
The grades are associated in mosaics in the
Mithraeum of Felicissimus, Ostia, with certain objects. Three objects
are given for each grade; one seems to be the symbol of the grade, while
the other two are symbols of the god or goddess.40
In the Santa Prisca Mithraeum in Rome, the grades are listed with an
inscription next to each, commending the grade-holder to a planetary
deity. This gives us the following infortmation:41
Grade
Symbols in the Ostia mosaic
St. Prisca Greeting
Corax (raven)
raven, beaker (the caduceus is a symbol of Mercury)
(Mercury)
Nymphus (bridegroom) or Gryphus
lamp (a diadem and a now unrecognisable object are symbols of the goddess and planet Venus)
"Nama to the Bridegrooms, under the protection of Venus!"
Miles (soldier)
sling-bag, helmet, lance
"Nama to the Soldiers, under the protection of Mars!"
Leo (lion)
the fire-shovel (the rattle, sistrum and thunderbolt refer to Jupiter)
Nama to the Lions, under the protection of Jupiter!"
Perses (Persian)
akimakes (Persian hooked dagger) (the crescent moon and stars refer to Luna)
"Nama to the Persians, under the protection of the Moon!"
Heliodromus (sun-runner)
torch (the rayed crown and whip are symbols of the sun)
"Nama to the Runners of the Sun, under the protection of the Sun!"
Pater (father)
libation bowl (the staff and sickle refer to Saturn)
"Nama to the Fathers, from East to West, under the protection of Saturn!"
In addition, there is mention in the inscriptions of a pater patrum. This is probably not a higher grade, but instead connected with the fact that there could be several initiates of grade pater, and that one of them became the pater for them all.42 Likewise at one Mithraeum there was a pater leonum, a "Father of the lions".4344
Admission into the community was completed with a handshake with the pater, just as Mithras and Sol shook hands. The initiates were thus referred to as syndexioi, those "united by the handshake".45 The term is used in an inscription46 and derided by Firmicus Maternus47.
Many Mithraea contain statues dedicated to gods of other
cults, and it is common to find inscriptions dedicated to Mithras in
other sanctuaries.48
Mithraism was not an alternative to other pagan religions, but rather a
particular way of practising pagan worship; and many Mithraic initiates
can also be found worshipping in the civic religion, and as initiates
of other mystery cults.49
Mithras is sometimes depicted in a similar manner to the Orphic deity Phanes.
5.2. Sol, Helios, Sol Invictus
Mithras is always described as "sol invictus" (the unconquered sun) in inscriptions.50. But Sol and Mithras were different deities.51 The vagueness of the term invictus means that it was used as a title for a number of deities.52 Mithraism never became a state cult, however, unlike the official late Roman Sol Invictus cult.53
Although Mithras himself is called Sol Invictus,
"the Unconquered Sun", he and Sol appear in several scenes as separate
persons, with the banquet scene being the most prominent example. Other
scenes feature Mithras ascending behind Sol in the latter's chariot, the
deities shaking hands and the two gods at an altar with pieces of meat
on a spit or spits. One peculiar scene shows Sol kneeling before
Mithras, who holds an object, interpreted either as a Persian cap or the
haunch of the bull, in his hand.54
5.3. Jupiter Dolichenus
The Mithraea at Carnuntum appear to have been constructed in close association with contemporary temple of Jupiter Dolichenus,55.
Two Mithraea were discovered in Doliche in Commagene itself (modern
Gaziantep in Turkey). The publishers proposed a date of the 1st century
A.D., but generally a 2nd-3rd century date is preferred, and the
temples related to Rhine-frontier Mithraea.56
The idea of a relationship between early
Christianity and Mithras is based on a remark by the 2nd century
Christian writer, Justin Martyr, who accused the cultists of Mithras of
imitating the Christian communion rite.57
Based upon this, Ernest Renan in 1882 depicted two rival religions:
"...if the growth of Christianity had been arrested by some mortal
malady, the world would have been Mithraic,"58 But in fact the two groups did not have similar aims, and there was never any chance of this occurring.59
6. Bibliography
6.1. Further reading
There is an immense number of books and articles, most
of them derivative. The following list is intentionally confined to the
most essential items.
Roger Beck, "The Mysteries of Mithras: A New Account of Their Genesis," Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 88, 1998 (1998) , pp. 115-128.
Roger Beck, "Mithraism since Franz Cumont," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II.17.4, 1984, pp.2002-2115. Important summary of the changes to Mithras scholarship.
Roger Beck, Beck on Mithraism: Collected works with new essays. Ashgate, 2004. Google Books preview here.
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras: the god and his mysteries, Translated by Richard Gordon. New York: Routledge, 2000. Pp. 198. ISBN 0-415-92977-6 here. An excellent concise view of the current consensus.
Franz Cumont, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra : pub. avec une introduction critique, 2 vols. 1894-6. Abbreviated as TMMM. Vol. 1 is an introduction, now obsolete. Vol. 2 is a collection of primary data, online at Archive.org here, and still of some value.
John Hinnells (ed.), Proceedings of The First International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Manchester University Press (1975).
Reinhold Merkelbach, Mithras: ein persisch-römischer Mysterienkult, 1994. Google books preview here.
Robert Turcan, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000.
David Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and Salvation in the Ancient World, Oxford University Press, 1989. An interesting account, widely read online, but not accepted by scholars.
Maarten J. Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1956, 2 vols. Abbreviated as CIMRM. The standard collection of Mithraic reliefs.
M.J. Vermaseren, "Nuove indagini nell'area della basilica di S. Prisca in Roma", in Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome. Antiquity,
n.s., 37, 2 (1975), pp. 87-96, p.93: "E per quanto riguardali mitraismo
vorrei aggiungere subito che secondo la mia modesta opinione questo
culto si basa più su concezioni ellenistiche che su un sostrato iranico,
come credeva una volta il geniale Franz Cumont.(27) Il famoso studioso
belga era dell'opinione che tutti i tratti caratteristici del Mitraismo
occidentale derivavano dalla religione iranica e che cos� anche il
pantheon iranico era rappresentato nelle divinità che riscontriamo nei
Mitrei. Questa supposizione vale parzialmente per le iscrizioni di
Mithradates Kallinikos e di suo figlio Antioco di Commagene,(28) dove
però il contenuto � ellenistico, ma non è vera per il Mitraismo come
culto sviluppato con misteri." (As regards Mithraism, I would like to
add now that in my humble opinion this cult is based more on hellenistic
concepts than on an Iranian substrate, as once believed the brilliant
Franz Cumont. (27) The famous Belgian scholar was of the opinion that
all the characteristic features of Mithraism derived from the western
Iranian religion, and so that the Iranian pantheon was represented in
the divinity that we find in Mithraea. This assumption is true in part
for inscriptions of Mithradates Kallinikos and his son Antiochus of
Commagene,(28) where, however, the content is Hellenistic, but it is not
true for Mithraism as a developed cult with mysteries.)
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras, p. xxi: "we possess virtually no theological statements either by Mithraists themselves or by other writers."
Richard L. Gordon, "The date and significance of CIMRM 593 (British Museum, Townley Collection)", Journal of Mithraic Studies
2, 1978, p.148-174. p. 160: "The usual western nominative form of
Mithras' name in the mysteries ended in -s, as we can see from the one
authentic dedication in the nominative, recut over a dedication to
Sarapis (463, Terme de Caracalla), and from occasional grammatical
errors such as deo inviato Metras (1443). But it is probable that
Euboulus and Pallas at least used the name Mithra as an indeclinable
(ap. Porphyry, De abstinentia II.56 and IV.16)."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p. 29-30: "Mithras also found a place in the 'pagan revival' that
occurred, particularly in the western empire, in the latter half of the
fourth century AD. For a brief period, especially in Rome, the cult
enjoyed, along with others, a last efflorescence, for which we have
evidence from among the highest circles of the senatorial order. One of
these senators was Rufius Caeionius Sabinus, who in 377 dedicated an
altar" to a long list of gods including Mithras.
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.43: "The architecture of mithraea is quite special, and its
characteristic configuration makes it easy to identify such temples in
excavations."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.42: "Because Mithras killed the bull in a cave, his followers
likewise performed the ritual reproduction of this saving act in a cave,
or rather in a shrine which reproduced that cave, in a spelaeum ('cave')."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras, p.46: "The cult-room itself (crypta)
was constructed according to a traditional scheme, whose design
remained virtually constant from Britain to the Black Sea. Its
characteristic feature was a central aisle (fig. 7: D) flanked on each
side by raised podia (E) for the initiates."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.xxi: "The evidence used in this book is essentially the
archaeological remains - the Mithraic temples and their contents, the
inscriptions and the reliefs, whose iconographic conventions are those
of Hellenistic and Roman tradition. Evidence for the cult has been found
at some 420 sites. There are about 1,000 inscriptions, and 700
depictions of the bull-killing (only about half of them complete); and
in addition 400 monuments with other subjects."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.73: "...the importance of water for all manner of ritual purposes is
revealed by the water-basins and cisterns, by the representations of
Oceanus, and also by the evident desire to locate temples in the
vicinity of a river or a spring. Water-basins were clearly part of the
basic equipment of all mithraea."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.22: "The cult spread from Italy, then. In view of the sheer amount of
evidence found there, we can probably point specifically to the area of
Rome and Ostia. The cult in Rome retained some peculiarities well after
the first century AD, though we have no firmly datable monuments from
the early period. Among these idiosyncrasies we can list the term
spelaeum, ritual cave, for the mithraeum, which was not replaced by the
word templum as quickly as in the provinces..."
Coarelli, "Topografica Mitriaca di Roma", in: Mysteria Mithrae,
ed. U. Bianchi, p.79: "In conclusione, gli edifici collegati con
mitrei, e la cui funzione è identificabile, sono tutti o quasi tutti
pubblici. Emergono per importanza le caserme (castra peregrina, equitum singularium, praetoria, urbana, stationes vigilum), le terme (terme di Tito, di Caracalla, di Costantino, di Sura, Deciane), le Stabula factionum circensi,
gli edifici annonari, le sedi di corporazioni, ecc. Risulta così
confermata l'osservazione di Becatti a proposito dei mitrei di Ostia,
che risultano inseriti sempre o quasi sempre non in case private, ma in
edifici di carattere pubblico." (In conclusion, the buildings connected
with mithraea, and whose function is identifiable, are all or nearly all
public buildings. Notably examples are the barracks (castra peregrina, equitum singularium, praetoria, urbana, stationes vigilum), the baths (baths of Titus, Caracalla, of Constantine, Sura, Decius), the stabula factionum circensi, the buildings of the annonari,
the homes of the corporations, etc. The observation of Becatti about
the mithraea of Ostia, which are always or almost always inserted, not
into private homes, but in public buildings, is therefore confirmed.)
David Ulansey, The origins of the Mithraic mysteries, p. 6:
"Although the iconography of the cult varied a great deal from temple
to temple, there is one element of the cult's iconography which was
present in essentially the same form in every mithraeum and which,
moreover, was clearly of the utmost importance to the cult's ideology;
namely the so-called tauroctony, or bull-slaying scene, in which the god
Mithras, accompanied by a series of other figures, is depicted in the
act of killing the bull."
J.
R. Hinnells, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates: the Data,"
Journal of Mithraic Studies 1, 1976, pp. 36-67. See also William W.
Malandra, Cautes and Cautopates in: "Encyclopedia Iranica".
H. von Gall, "The Lion-headed and the Human-headed God in the Mithraic Mysteries," in Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin ed. Études mithriaques, 1978, p. 511:
"Very characteristic of Roman Mithraic art is the type of a naked
lion-headed youth. He is entwined by a snake, and the snake's head
usually rests on the lion's head. The lion's mouth of this demon is
usually open giving a grim and infernal impression. He is mostly
represented with four wings, and further attributes are two keys (or one
key) and a sceptre in each hand: sometimes he is standing on a globe
(fig. 1). It must be stressed that this mythological type is entirely
restricted to Mithraic art. Exact parallels are missing in contemporary
Egypt and from the composite beings on Gnostic gems, though in both of
these cases animal-headed creatures are numerous. There is a variant of
the lion-headed Mithraic demon with an entirely human body, which also
has a human head. This latter type is more scarcely represented though
it must be supposed that some headless statues with a small neck and
acccntuated shoulders may have belonged to the human-headed type (pl.
XXX)."
Roger Beck, A reprinted article on the Ponza zodiac in: Beck on Mithraism, Ashgate (2004), p. 194
(original article page no. 110): "The other monuments in which a snake
is associated with a zodiac are, significantly, all Mithraic, and for
the most part they are monuments of the lion-headed god. There is no
need for us to enter into the vexed question of who exactly this deity
is. It is sufficient for our purposes 'that, from the iconography, the
god was concerned with time, seasonal change and cosmic power' (Gordon,
1975: 222), a position that, I believe, few scholars would be inclined
to deny. Nor shall I be attempting to prove that proposition, since my
argument would then be circular. The association of the lion-headed god
with time is established largely through the iconography of snake and
zodiac. One cannot therefore argue that the snake and zodiac, as found
at Ponza, are symbols of time because they are associated elsewhere with
the lion-headed god. Rather, I wish only to demonstrate that, accepting
as a premise that the snake with the zodiac is a symbol of time, and in
particular of time as defined by the sun's annual journey."
Howard M. Jackson, "The Meaning and Function of the Leontocephaline in Roman Mithraism" in Numen, Vol. 32, Fasc. 1 (Jul., 1985), pp. 17-45. Online here.
P.18: "On the provisos, however, that the statue represents a
leontocephaline (it does have the usual wings and keys), that the
crucial word is correctly restored, and that the word identifies the
statue itself, the being's name was Arimanius, nominally the equivalent
of Ahriman, the great Evil One of the Zoroastrian pantheon. In support
of this admittedly shaky identification of the leontocephaline there are
the facts that Arimanius is known from inscriptions to have figured as a
deus in the Mithraic cult (CIMRM #369, an altar from Rome; #1773 with fig 461 and #1775, both from Pannonia) and to have been depicted by some kind of plastic image (signum Arimanium: CIMRM #222, from Ostia)."
Jerome, Letters107
ch. 2, (To Laeta): "... did not your own kinsman Gracchus whose name
betokens his patrician origin, when a few years back he held the
prefecture of the City, overthrow, break in pieces, and shake to pieces
the grotto of Mithras and all the dreadful images therein? Those I mean
by which the worshippers were initiated as Raven, Bridegroom, Soldier,
Lion, Perseus, Sun, Crab, and Father?"
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.33: "They stand in some relation to the planets: their number, seven,
must have inspired the number of grades. In the important mithraeum
beneath S. Prisca in Rome frescoes were discovered with figures
depicting the different grades, each with a dipinto beside it commending the priests to the protection of the different planetary gods. They all begin with the word nama, a word, as we have seen (p. 8), of Persian origin, representing a particularly solemn form of greeting."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p. 133: "Further evidence is offered by the Mithraeum of Felicissimus
at Ostia, where there is a mosaic floor to the central aisle, divided
into seven panels each with devices akin to heraldic emblems (fig. 9).
We may surmise that they are related to the grades, though it is
possible that are just symbols of the planets."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.131: "Although it is not always clearly stated, most previous
accounts assume that all Mithraists were members of one grade or
another. ... Should we not rather conclude that in the cult there were,
on the one hand, the great majority of Mithraists, who were simply
initiated once, and, on the other, a small group of holders of the
different grades, whom it would be appropriate to speak of as
'priests'?"
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.138: "The name of C. Accius Hedychrus occurs on four different
votives at Emerita in Lusitania (Merida, Spain). Two he himself donated,
but in the case of the two others he simply gave his approval, and in
them he is referred to as pater (V 774, 793). In his own inscriptions, he calls himself once pater (V 781, fig. 115) and once p(ater) patrum
(V 779). This last is probably not a higher grade, but is to be
connected with the fact that there could be several Fathers in one
congregation, so one of them became the 'Father of (the) Fathers'."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras, p.136: "Another Umbrian Mithraist, at Sentinum (Sentino), bore the title pater leonum, 'Father of the Lions', which also suggests a rather large number of them there (V 688)."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.152: "The pact between the deities was the model for a ceremony that
concluded the acceptance of new members into the Mithraic community: the
initiates were termed syndexioi, 'those who have been united by a
handshake' (with the Father) (p. 105)."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras, p. 42: "That the hand-shaken might make their vows joyfully forever" referencing CIMRM 423, dedicated by a certain Proficentius.
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p. 105: "the followers of Mithras were the 'initiates of the theft of
the bull, united by the handshake of the illustrious father." (Err. prof. relig. 5.2)
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.158: "There are many examples illustrating the readiness of
Mithraists to worship other divinities. ... The range of Graeco-Roman
divinities to whom votives were offered in mithraea is quite
considerable. ... Of all these deities, I would just like to stress the
significance of Mercury for many Mithraic congregations."
Clauss,
p.146: "Roman Mithras is the invincible sun-god, Sol Invictus. This is
the burden, repeated a hundred times over, of the votive inscriptions
from the second to the fourth centuries AD, whether in the form Sol
Invictus Mithras, or Deus Sol Invictus Mithras, or Deus Sol Mithras, or
Sol Mithras. There do not seem to be any significant regional or
temporal variations among such formulae. In the very earliest epigraphic
evidence for the Roman cult of Mithras, the god is already invoked as
Sol Invictus Mithras. These facts are confirmed by the numerous votive
offerings to Sol, Deus Sol, Sol Invictus, and Deus Invictus Sol which
were put up in mithraea."; Clauss, p.79: "Victory is what characterises
the god; his one unvarying epithet is Invictus."
Clauss,
p.147: "On the other hand, however, Mithras and Sol are two separate
deities, as can amply be demonstrated."; p.148: "Mithras is Sol, and at
the same time Sol is Mithras' companion. Paradoxical relationships of
this kind are to be found between many deities in antiquity. People in
the ancient world did not feel bound by fixed credos and confessions
which had to be consistent to the last detail: in the area of religion, a
truly blessed anarchy held sway."
Erika Manders, Coining Images of Power: Patterns in the Representation of Roman Emperors on Imperial Coinage, A.D. 193-284, Brill, 2012, p.130: "Sol, however, did not have the exclusive right to appear as pacator orbis and invictus on third-century coins. Jupiter, Aurelian, Probus and Numerian appear as pacator orbis too, while, apart from Sol, other gods (Jupiter, Hercules and Mars) received the epithet invictus." References are given to coin types.
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras,
p.23-4: "The cult of Mithras never became one of those supported by the
state
with public funds, and was never admitted to the official list of
festivals celebrated by the state and the army - at any rate, in so far
as the latter is known to us from the Feriale Duranum, the
religious calendar of the units at Dura-Europos in Coele Syria; the same
is true of all other mystery cults too. This of course does not exclude
the possibility that the emperors and their circle may have felt a more
than casual personal sympathy for the cult, but they certainly
tolerated, perhaps even encouraged, their subjects' adherence."
Manfred Clauss, The Roman cult of Mithras, p.44: "One could also include Jupiter Dolichenus here: not only have votives to him been discovered in mithraea (V 1208), but Mithraic inscriptions and cult-reliefs have been found in dolichena (V 70, p. 157; V 468-70; 1729)."
Justin Martyr, First Apology, ch. 66:
"For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called
Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that
Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in
remembrance of Me, this is My body; "and that, after the same manner,
having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood; "and
gave it to them alone. Which the wicked devils have imitated in the
mysteries of Mithras, commanding the same thing to be done. For, that
bread and a cup of water are placed with certain incantations in the
mystic rites of one who is being initiated, you either know or can
learn."
E. Renan, Marc-Aurele et la fin du monde antique. Paris, 1882, p. 579:
"On peut dire que, si le christianisme eût été arrêté dans sa
croissance par quelque maladie mortelle, le monde eût été mithriaste."
J. A. Ezquerra and R. Gordon, Romanising oriental Gods: myth, salvation and ethics in the cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras.
Brill, 2008, p.202-3: "Many people have erroneously supposed that all
religions have a sort of universalist tendency or ambition. In the case
of Mithraism, such an ambition has often been taken for granted and
linked to a no less questionable assumption, that there was a rivalry
between Mithras and Christ for imperial favour. ... If Christianity had
failed, the Roman empire would never have become Mithraist." Google
books preview here.
---
Mithraism - Mithraic Mysteries
The Mithraic Mysteries were a mystery religion practised in the Roman
Empire from about the 1st to 4th centuries AD. The name of the Persian
god Mithra, adapted into Greek as Mithras, was linked to a new and
distinctive imagery. Romans also called the religion Mysteries of
Mithras or Mysteries of the Persians; modern historians refer to it as
Mithraism or sometimes Roman Mithraism. The mysteries were popular in
the Roman military.
Worshippers of Mithras had a complex system of seven grades of
initiation, with ritual meals. Initiates called themselves syndexioi,
those "united by the handshake". They met in underground temples
(called a mithraeum), which survive in large numbers. The cult appears
to have had its epicentre in Rome.
Numerous archeological finds, including meeting places, monuments, and
artifacts, have contributed to modern knowledge about Mithraism
throughout the Roman Empire. The iconic scenes of Mithras show him being
born from a rock, slaughtering a bull, and sharing a banquet with the
god Sol (the Sun).
About 420 sites have yielded materials related to the cult. Among the
items found are about 1000 inscriptions, 700 examples of the
bull-killing scene (tauroctony), and about 400 other monuments. It has
been estimated that there would have been at least 680-690 Mithraea in
Rome. No written narratives or theology from the religion survive, with
limited information to be derived from the inscriptions, and only brief
or passing references in Greek and Latin literature. Interpretation of
the physical evidence remains problematic and contested.
The Romans themselves regarded the mysteries as having Persian or
Zoroastrian sources. Since the early 1970s, however, the dominant
scholarship has cast this origin in doubt, and regarded the mysteries of
Mithras as a distinct product of the Roman Imperial religious world. In
this context, Mithraism has sometimes been viewed as a rival of early
Christianity.
Principles of Mithraism
Romans encountered worship of the deity Mithras as part of
Zoroastrianism in the eastern provinces of the empire, particularly in
Asia Minor (now modern Turkey).
Mithraism is best documented in the form it had acquired in the later
Roman Empire. It was an initiatory 'mystery religion,' passed from
initiate to initiate, like the Eleusinian Mysteries. It was not based on
a supernaturally revealed body of scripture, and hence very little
written documentary evidence survives. Soldiers appeared to be the most
plentiful followers of Mithraism, and women were apparently not allowed
to join.
Roman worship of Mithras began sometime during the early Roman empire,
perhaps during the late first century of the Common Era (hereafter CE),
and flourished from the second through the fourth century BCE. during
which it came under the influence of Greek and Roman mythologies. The
Mithraic cult maintained secrecy. Its teaching were only reveled to
initiates.
The evidence for this cult is mostly archaeological, consisting of the
remains of mithraic temples, dedicatory inscriptions, and iconographic
representations of the god and other aspects of the cult in stone
sculpture, sculpted stone relief, wall painting, and mosaic. There is
very little literary evidence pertaining to the cult. Remains of
Mithraic temples can be found throughout the Roman Empire, from
Palestine across north of Africa, and across central Europe to northern
England.
For over three hundred years the rulers of the Roman Empire worshipped
the god Mithras. In Rome, more than a hundred inscriptions dedicated to
Mithras have been found, in addition to 75 sculpture fragments, and a
series of Mithraic temples situated in all parts of the city. One of the
largest Mithraic temples built in Italy now lies under the present site
of the Church of St. Clemente, near the Colosseum in Rome.
The Mithraeum
It is known that the center of the cult was the Mithraeum, either an
adapted natural cave or cavern, preferably sanctified by previous local
religious usage, or an artificial building imitating a cavern. Mithraea
were dark and windowless, even if they were not actually in a
subterranean space or in a natural cave.
When possible, the mithraeum was constructed within or below an existing
building. The site of a mithraeum may also be identified by its
separate entrance or vestibule, its "cave", called the 'spelaeum' or
'spelunca', with raised benches along the side walls for the ritual
meal, and its sanctuary at the far end, often in a recess, before which
the pedestal-like altar stood.
Many mithraea that follow this basic plan are scattered over much of the
Empire's former area, particularly where the legions were stationed
along the frontiers. Others may be recognized by their characteristic
layout, even though converted as crypts beneath Christian churches.
In every Mithraic temple, the place of honor was occupied by a
representation of Mithras killing a sacred bull, called a tauroctony. It
has been more recently proposed that the tauroctony is a symbolic
representation of the constellations rather than an originally Iranian
animal sacrifice scene (Ulansey, 1991).
Mithras is associated with Perseus, whose constellation is above that of
the bull. A serpent, a scorpion, a dog, and a raven are present, also
thought to represent associated constellations.
From the structure of the mithraea it is possible to surmise that
worshippers would have gathered for a common meal along the reclining
couches lining the walls. It is worth noting that most temples could
hold only thirty or forty individuals.
Mithraic Ranks
The members of a mithraeum were divided into seven ranks. All members
were apparently expected to progress through the first four ranks, while
only a few would go on to the three higher ranks. The first four ranks
seem to represent spiritual progress, while the other three appear to
have been specialized offices. The seven ranks were:
Corax (raven)
Nymphus (bride)
Miles (soldier)
Leo (lion)
Perses (Persian)
Heliodromus (sun-courier)
Pater (father)
The new initiate became a Corax, while the Leo was an adept. The titles
of the first four ranks suggest the possibility that advancement through
the ranks was based on introspection and spiritual growth.
The Iconography of Mithraism
In the absence of any Mithraist scripture, all we know about Mithras is
what can be deduced from his images in the mithraea that have survived.
Some depictions show Mithras carrying a rock on his back, much as Atlas
did, and/or wearing a cape that had the starry sky as its inside lining.
A bronze image of Mithras, emerging from an egg-shaped zodiac ring,
found associated with a mithraeum along Hadrian's Wall (now at the
University of Newcastle), and an inscription from the city of Rome
suggest that Mithras may have been seen as the Orphic creator-god Phanes
who emerged from the cosmic egg at the beginning of time, bringing the
universe into existence. This view is reinforced by a bas-relief at the
Estense Museum in Modena, Italy, which shows Phanes coming from an egg,
surrounded by the twelve signs of the zodiac, in an image very similar
to that at Newcastle.
He is sometimes depicted as a man being born or reborn from a rock (the 'petra genetrix), typically with the snake Ouroboros wrapped
around it. It is commonly believed that the cave in Mithraism imagery
represents the cosmos, and the rock is the cosmos seen from the outside;
hence the description of this god as 'rising from the dead'. According
to some accounts, Mithras died, was buried in a cavernous rock tomb, and
was resurrected.
Another more widely accepted interpretation takes its clue from the
writer Porphyry, who recorded that the cave pictured in the tauroctony
was intended to be "an image of the cosmos." According to this view, the
cave depicted in that image may represent the "great cave" of the sky.
This interpretation was supported by research by K. B. Stark in 1869,
with astronomical support by Roger Beck (1984 and 1988), David Ulansey
(1989) and Noel Swerdlow (1991). This interpretation is reinforced by
the constant presence in Mithraic imagery of heavenly objects - such as
stars, the moon, and the sun - and symbols for the signs of the Zodiac.
One of the central motifs of Mithraism is the tauroctony, the myth of
sacrifice by Mithra of a sacred bull created by the supreme deity Ahura
Mazda, which Mithra stabs to death in the cave, having been instructed
to do so by a crow, sent from Ahura Mazda. In this myth, from the body
of the dying bull spring plants, animals, and all the beneficial things
of the earth. It is thought that the bull represents the constellation
of Taurus. However, in the period we are considering, the sun at the
Vernal Equinox had left Taurus two thousand years before, and was in the
process of moving from Aries to Pisces.
In light of this interpretation, it has been suggested in recent times
that the Mithraic religion is somehow connected to the end of the
astrological "age of Taurus," and the beginning of the "age of Aries,"
which took place about the year 2000 BC. It has even been speculated
that the religion may have originated at that time (although there is no
record of it until the 2nd century BC).
The identification of an "age" with a particular zodiac constellation is
based on the sun's position during the vernal equinox. Before 2000 BC,
the Sun could have been seen against the stars of the constellation of
Taurus at the time of vernal equinox [had there been an eclipse]. Due to
the precession of the equinoxes, on average every 2,160 years the Sun
appears against the stars of a new constellation at vernal equinox. The
current astrological age started when the equinox precessed into the
constellation of Pisces, in about the year 150 BC, with the "Age of
Aquarius" starting in AD 2600.
Indeed, the constellations common in the sky from about 4000 BC to 2000
BC were Taurus the Bull, Canis Minor the Dog, Hydra the Snake, Corvus
the Raven, and Scorpio the Scorpion, all of which may be identified in
the fresco from Dura-Europos, a standard Hellenistic iconography.
Further support for this theory is the presence of a lion and a cup in
some depictions of the tauroctony: indeed Leo (a lion) and Aquarius
("the cup-bearer") were the constellations seen as the northernmost
(summer solstice) and southernmost (winter solstice) positions in the
sky during the age of Taurus.
The precession of the equinoxes was discovered, or at least publicized,
by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the 2nd century BC. Whether the
phenomenon was known by Mithraists previously is unknown. In any case,
Mithras was presumed to be very powerful if he was able to rotate the
heavens, and thus 'kill the bull' or displacing Taurus as the reigning
image in the heavens.
Some commentators surmise that the Mithraists worshipped Mithras as the
mediator between Man and the supreme God of the upper and nether world.
Other commentators, inspired by James Frazer's theories, have
additionally labeled Mithras a mystery religion with a
life-death-rebirth deity, comparable to Isis, the resurrected Jesus or
the Persephone/Demeter cult of the Eleusinian Mysteries.
Mithraism is generally considered to be of Persian origins, specifically an outgrowth of Zoroastrian culture, though not of Zoroaster's teachings.
Zoroaster was a monotheist, for whom Ahuramazda was the One god. Darius
the Great was equally stringent in the official monotheism of his reign:
no god but Ahuramazda is ever mentioned in any of the numerous
inscriptions that survive of his reign (521-485 BC).
However, the official cult is rarely the sole religion in an area. The
following inscription from Susa of Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404-358 BC)
demonstrates that not all the Achaemenid kings were as purely
Zoroastrian as Darius the Great.
It is tempting to identify the Roman Mithras with the Persian Mithra,
except that there is no known Persian legend or text about Mithra
killing a bull or being associated with other animals. On the other
hand, there is a story of Ahriman, the evil god in popular developments
of Zoroastrianism, killing a bull. It is also hard to explain how the
Sun-god Mithra would come to be worshipped in the windowless, cave-like
mithraeum.
A possible link between Persia and Rome, which could be the stage for
these changes, may be the kingdoms of Parthia and Pontus in Asia Minor.
Several of their kings were called Mithradates, meaning "given by
Mithra", starting with Mithradates I of Parthia (died 138 BC). It would
seem that, in those kingdoms, Mithra was a god whose power lent luster
even to a king. And it was at Pergamum, in the 2nd century BC, that
Greek sculptors started to produce bas-relief imagery of Mithra
Taurocthonos, "Mithra the bull-slayer." Although the cult of Mithras
never caught on in the Greek homeland, those sculptures may indicate the
route between Persian Mithra and Roman Mithras.
Around the first century AD, the Greek historian Plutarch wrote about
pirates of Cilicia who practiced the Mithraic "secret rites" around 67
BC. Since Cilicia was the coastal province in the southeast of Anatolia,
the Mithras mentioned by Plutarch may have been worship of the Persian
god Mithra; or may have been associated with Ahriman, the Persian god
who killed a bull.
In Persia Mithra was the protector God of the tribal society until the Zoroaster's reformation
of Persian polytheism (628-55BC). Mithra like the rest of the gods and
goddess of the Iranian Pantheon was stripped of his sovereignty, and
all his powers and attributes were bestowed upon Zarathustra.
Mithraism began in Persia where originally a multitude of gods were
worshipped. Amongst them were Ahura-Mazda, god of the skies, and
Ahriman, god of darkness. In the sixth and seventh century B.C., a vast
reformation of the Persian pantheon was undertaken by Zarathustra (known
in Greek as Zoroaster), a prophet from the kingdom of Bactria. The
stature of Ahura-Mazda was elevated to that of supreme god of goodness,
whereas the god Ahriman became the ultimate embodiment of evil.
In the same way that Ahkenaton, Abraham, Heliogabalus, and Mohammed
later initiated henotheistic cults from the worship of their respective
deities, Zarathustra created a henotheistic dualism with the gods
Ahura-Mazda and Ahriman. As a result of the Babylonian captivity of the
Jews (597 B.C.) and their later emancipation by King Cyrus the Great of
Persia (538 B.C.), Zoroastrian dualism was to influence the Jewish
belief in the existence of HaShatan, the malicious Adversary of the god
Yahweh, and later permit the evolution of the Christian Satan-Jehovah
dichotomy. Persian religious dualism became the foundation of an ethical
system that has lasted until this day.
The reformation of Zarathustra retained the hundreds of Persian deities,
assembling them into a complex hierarchical system of 'Immortals' and
'Adored Ones' under the rule of either Ahura- Mazda or Ahriman. Within
this vast pantheon, Mithras gained the title of 'Judger of Souls'. He
became the divine representative of Ahura-Mazda on earth, and was
directed to protect the righteous from the demonic forces of Ahriman.
Mithras was called omniscient, undeceivable, infallible, eternally
watchful, and never-resting.
In the Avesta, the holy book of the religion of Zarathustra, Ahura-Mazda
was said to have created Mithras in order to guarantee the authority of
contracts and the keeping of promises.
The name Mithras was the Persian word for 'contract'.
The divine duty of Mithras was to ensure general prosperity through good
contractual relations between men. It was believed that misfortune
would befall the entire land if a contract was ever broken.
Ahura-Mazda was said to have created Mithras to be as great and worthy
as himself. He would fight the spirits of evil to protect the creations
of Ahura-Mazda and cause even Ahriman to tremble. Mithras was seen as
the protector of just souls from demons seeking to drag them down to
Hell, and the guide of these souls to Paradise. As Lord of the Sky, he
took the role of psychopomp, conducting the souls of the righteous dead
to paradise.
According to Persian traditions, the god Mithras was actually incarnated
into the human form of the Saviour expected by Zarathustra. Mithras was
born of Anahita, an immaculate virgin mother once worshipped as a
fertility goddess before the hierarchical reformation. Anahita was said
to have conceived the Saviour from the seed of Zarathustra preserved in
the waters of Lake Hamun in the Persian province of Sistan. Mithra's
ascension to heaven was said to have occurred in 208 B.C., 64 years
after his birth. Parthian coins and documents bear a double date with
this 64 year interval.
Mithras was 'The Great King' highly revered by the nobility and
monarchs, who looked upon him as their special protector. A great number
of the nobility took theophorous (god-bearing) names compounded with
Mithras. The title of the god Mithras was used in the dynasties of
Pontus, Parthia, Cappadocia, Armenia and Commagene by emperors with the
name Mithradates. Mithradates VI, king of Pontus (northern Turkey) in
120-63 B.C. became famous for being the first monarch to practice
immunization by taking poisons in gradually increased doses. The terms
mithridatism and mithridate (a pharmacological elixir) were named after
him. The Parthian princes of Armenia were all priests of Mithras, and an
entire district of this land was dedicated to the Virgin Mother
Anahita. Many Mithraeums, or Mithraic temples, were built in Armenia,
which remained one of the last strongholds of Mithraism.
The largest near-eastern Mithtraeum was built in western Persia at
Kangavar, dedicated to 'Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the
Lord Mithras'. Other Mithraic temples were built in Khuzestan and in
Central Iran near present-day Mahallat, where at the temple of Khorheh a
few tall columns still stand. Excavations in Nisa, later renamed
Mithradatkirt, have uncovered Mithraic mausoleums and shrines. Mithraic
sanctuaries and mausoleums were built in the city of Hatra in upper
Mesopotamia. West of Hatra at Dura Europos, Mithraeums were found with
figures of Mithras on horseback.
Persian Mithraism was more a collection of traditions and rites than a
body of doctrines. However, once the Babylonians took the Mithraic
rituals and mythology from the Persians, they thoroughly refined its
theology. The Babylonian clergy assimilated Ahura-Mazda to the god Baal,
Anahita to the goddess Ishtar, and Mithras to Shamash, their god of
justice, victory and protection (and the sun god from whom King
Hammurabi received his code of laws in the 18th century B.C.) As a
result of the solar and astronomical associations of the Babylonians,
Mithras later was referred to by Roman worshippers as 'Sol invictus', or
the invincible sun.
The sun itself was considered to be "the eye of Mithras". The Persian
crown, from which all present day crowns are derived, was designed to
represent the golden sun-disc sacred to Mithras.
As a deity connected with the sun and its life-giving powers, Mithras
was known as 'The Lord of the Wide Pastures' who was believed to cause
the plants to spring forth from the ground. In the time of Cyrus and
Darius the Great, the rulers of Persia received the first fruits of the
fall harvest at the festival of Mehragan. At this time they wore their
most brilliant clothing and drank wine. In the Persian calendar, the
seventh month and the sixteenth day of each month were also dedicated to
Mithras.
According to Persian mythology, Mithras was born of a virgin given the
title 'Mother of God'. The God remained celibate throughout his life,
and valued self-control, renunciation and resistance to sensuality among
his worshippers. Mithras represented a system of ethics in which
brotherhood was encouraged in order to unify against the forces of evil.
The Persians called Mithras 'The Mediator' since he was believed to
stand between the light of Ahura-Mazda and the darkness of Ahriman. He
was said to have 1000 eyes, expressing the conviction that no man could
conceal his wrongdoing from the god. Mithras was known as the God of
Truth, and Lord of Heavenly Light, and said to have stated "I am a star
which goes with thee and shines out of the depths".
Mithras was worshipped as guardian of arms, and patron of soldiers and
armies. The handshake was developed by those who worshipped him as a
token of friendship and as a gesture to show that you were unarmed. When
Mithras later became the Roman god of contracts, the handshake gesture
was imported throughout the Mediterranean and Europe by Roman soldiers.
In Armenian tradition, Mithras was believed to shut himself up in a cave
from which he emerged once a year, born anew. The Persians introduced
initiates to the mysteries in natural caves, according to Porphyry, the
third century neoplatonic philosopher. These cave temples were created
in the image of the World Cave that Mithras had created, according to
the Persian creation myth.
As 'God of Truth and Integrity', Mithras was invoked in solemn oaths to
pledge the fulfillment of contracts and punish liars. He was believed to
maintain peace, wisdom, honor, prosperity, and cause harmony to reign
among all his worshippers. According to the Avesta, Mithras could decide
when different periods of world history were completed. He would judge
mortal souls at death and brandish his mace over hell three times each
day so that demons would not inflict greater punishment on sinners than
they deserved.
Mithraism In Early Rome
Mithraism arrived fully mature at Rome with the return of the legions
from the east in the first century BC. As an action god of armies and
the champion of heroes, he appealed to the professional Roman soldiers,
who carried his cult to Iberia, Britain, the German frontiers and Dacia.
The cult of Mithras began to attract attention at Rome about the end of
the first century AD, perhaps in connection with the conquest of
then-Zoroastrian Armenia. The earliest material evidence for the Roman
worship of Mithras dates from that period, in a record of Roman soldiers
who came from the military garrison at Carnuntum in the Roman province
of Upper Pannonia (near the Danube River in modern Austria, near the
Hungarian border). These soldiers fought against the Parthians and were
involved in the suppression of the revolts in Jerusalem from 60 A.D. to
about 70 A.D. When they returned home, they made Mithraic dedications,
probably in the year 71 or 72.
Statius mentions the typical Mithraic relief in his Thebaid (Book i.
719,720), around A. D. 80; Plutarch's Life of Pompey also makes it clear
that the worship of Mithras was well known at that time.
By A. D. 200, Mithraism had spread widely through the army, and also
among traders and slaves. The German frontiers have yielded most of the
archaeological evidence of its prosperity: small cult objects connected
with Mithra turn up in archaeological digs from Romania to Hadrian's
Wall.
Mithraism in the Roman Empire
At Rome, the third century emperors encouraged Mithraism, because of the
support which it afforded to the divine nature of monarchs. Mithras
thus became the giver of authority and victory to the Imperial House.
From the time of Commodus, who participated in its mysteries, its
supporters were to be found in all classes.
Concentrations of Mithraic temples are found on the outskirts of the
Roman empire: along Hadrian's wall in northern England three mithraea
have been identified, at Housesteads, Carrawburgh and Rudchester. The
discoveries are in the University of Newcastle's Museum of Antiquities,
where a mithraeum has been recreated. Recent excavations in London have
uncovered the remains of a Mithraic temple near to the center of the
once walled Roman settlement, on the bank of the Walbrook stream.
Mithraea have also been found along the Danube and Rhine river frontier,
in the province of Dacia (where in 2003 a temple was found in
Alba-Iulia) and as far afield as Numidia in North Africa.
As would be expected, Mithraic ruins are also found in the port city of
Ostia, and in Rome the capital, where as many as seven hundred mithraea
may have existed (a dozen have been identified). Its importance at Rome
may be judged from the abundance of monumental remains: more than 75
pieces of sculpture, 100 Mithraic inscriptions, and ruins of temples and
shrines in all parts of the city and its suburbs. A well-preserved late
2nd century mithraeum, with its altar and built-in stone benches,
originally built beneath a Roman house (as was a common practice),
survives in the crypt over which has been built the Basilica of San
Clemente, Rome.
Mithra is an Indo-Iranian sun god. In Hinduism he is praised as the
binomial Mitra-Varuna. A hymn is also dedicated to him alone in Rig
Veda. He is the Lord of Heavenly light, protector of truth, and
is invoked when a contract or oath is taken.
The Babylonians also incorporated their belief in destiny into the
Mithraic worship of Zurvan, the Persian god of infinite time and father
of the gods Ahura-Mazda and Ahriman. They superimposed astrology, the
use of the
zodiac, and the deification of the four seasons onto the Persian rites
of Mithraism.
Mithra is also seen in Chinese mythology, where he is known as The Friend.
Mithra is represented as a Military General in Chinese statues, and is
considered to be the friend of man in this life and his protector
against evil in the next.
The Demise of Mithraism
Worship of the sun (Sol) did exist within the indigenous Roman pantheon,
as a minor part, and always as a pairing with the moon. However, in the
East, there were many solar deities, including the Greek Helios, who
was largely displaced by Apollo. By the 3rd century, the popular cults
of Apollo and Mithras had started to merge into the syncretic cult known
as Sol Invictus, and in 274 CE the emperor Aurelian (whose mother had
been a priestess of the sun) made worship of Sol Invictus official.
Subsequently Aurelian built a splendid new temple in Rome, and created a
new body of priests to support it (pontifex solis invicti), attributing
his victories in the East to Sol Invictus. But none of this affected
the existing cult of Mithras, which remained a non-official cult. Some
senators held positions in both cults.
However, this period was also the beginning of the decline of Mithraism,
as Dacia was lost to the empire, and invasions of the northern peoples
resulted in the destruction of temples along a great stretch of
frontier, the main stronghold of the cult. The spread of Christianity
through the Empire, boosted by Constantine's tolerance of it from around
310 CE, also took its toll - particularly as Christianity admitted
women while Mithraism did not, which obviously limited its potential for
rapid growth.
The reign of Julian, who attempted to restore the faith, and suppress
Christianity, and the usurpation of Eugenius renewed the hopes of its
devotees, but the decree secured by Theodosius in 394, totally
forbidding non-Christian worship, may be considered the end of
Mithraism's formal public existence.Mithraism still survived in certain
cantons of the Alps into the 5th century, and clung to life with more
tenacity in its Eastern homelands. Its eventual successor, as the
carrier of Persian religion to the West, was Manichaeism, which competed
strenuously with Christianity for the status of world-religion.
Connections
There is much speculation that Christian beliefs were influenced by Mithraic belief. Ernest Renan, in The Origins of Christianity, promoted
the idea that Mithraism was the prime competitor to Christianity in the
second through the fourth century AD, although most scholars feel the
written claims that the emperors Nero, Commodus, Septimius Severus,
Caracalla, and the Tetrarchs were initiates are dubious at best, and
there is no evidence that Mithraic worship was accorded any official
status as a Roman cult. Except in its official form as 'Sol Invictus,'
the first universal religion of the Greco Roman world.
Bull and cave themes are found in Christian shrines dedicated to the
archangel Michael, who, after the officialization of Christianity,
became the patron Saint of soldiers. Many of those shrines were
converted Mithraea, for instance the sacred cavern at Monte Gargano in
Apulia, refounded in 493. It is hard to avoid the conclusion that the
Mithras cult was transferred to the previously unvenerated archangel.
Bull and crypt are linked in the Christian saint Saturnin (frequently
"Sernin" or "Saturninus") of Toulouse, France. The Mithraeum is retained
as a crypt under his earliest church, evocatively named "Notre-Dame du
Taur."
It has also been speculated that the ancient Orobouros of Mithraism (the
encircling serpent about to bite its own tail) was adapted for a
Christian symbol of the limited confines of time and space. The snake
around a rock also is reminscent of the Midgard serpent, Jormungandr,
who was said to surround Midgard (the Earth) according to Norse
traditions.
Christians would argue that because the Gospels were written mostly
before 100 and that since little is known of Roman Mithraism until after
100 that it is not plausible to say that Christianity borrowed any of
its doctrines from Mithraism; some Christians have suggested that
Mithraism may have borrowed some elements from Christianity. Other,
non-Christian scholars disagree on both the dating of the gospels and
with the conclusions made.
A better determinant of borrowing, is to compare core doctrines between
Christianity and Mithraism. The adoption of imagery or icons or
festivals is fairly peripheral (such as the adoption by christendom of
winter solstice or Saturnalia festivals as Christmas) but seldom
reflects basic religious tenets. A further example of this is the
various gnostic cults (such as Pelagianism) which adopted the personage
of Jesus or the concept of a Savior, yet did not adopt the underlying
doctrinal elements.
Parallels to Christianity
According to Martin A. Larson, in The Story of Christian Origins(1977),
Mithraism and Christianity derived from the same sources, originally
from the savior cult of Osiris. However, Larson believes that the
Essenes were Jewish Pythagoreans, whose members not only gave birth to
Christianity as Essenes, but were directly influenced by Zoroastrian
doctrine as Pythagoreans. Mithraism, an established but exclusive sect
devoted to social justice, was assimilated by state-sponsored
Christianity before being disposed of in name.
Though no texts of Mithraism survive, various fragments, inscriptions
and critical commentaries show that Mithraism and early Christianity
both possess similar religious doctrines. The resemblances between the
two churches were so striking as to impress even the minds of antiquity
(Cumont, 193). From their common Zoroastrian sources, Mithraism first
held that all souls pre-existed in the ethereal regions, and inhabited a
body upon birth.
Life then becomes a great struggle between good and evil, spirit and
body, the children of light versus the children of darkness (identical
to Pythagoreanism). All souls were to be judged by Mithra (represented
as a bull) with the Elect going to heaven, and the earthly and evil
being annihilated in a great battle. Mithraism divided the human race
into three classes: the spiritual Elect, the wicked, and those who try
to be good but can't seem to overcome evil. The Elect go straight to
heaven, while the good-intentioned wait until judgment to be
resurrected, where the wicked will be destroyed.
Both Christianity and Mithraism prided themselves in brotherhood and
organized their members as church congregations. Both religions purified
themselves through baptism, and each participated in the same type of
sacrament, bread and wine. Mithra was born in a cave; a cave is likewise
the setting for the nativity of Jesus in the widely-read and
influential Gospel of James, which though not canonical is the earliest
surviving document attesting the veneration of Mary and claiming her
continuing virginity. Both nativities were celebrated on December 25th,
and each savior was visited by shepherds with gifts. Both Mithraism and
Christianity considered Sunday their holy day, despite early
Christianity observing the Jewish Sabbath for centuries. Many have noted
that the title of Pope is found in Mithraic doctrine and seemingly
prohibited in Christian doctrine. The words Peter (rock) and mass
(sacrament) have original significance in Mithraism.
Both Mithraism and early Christianity considered abstinence, celibacy,
and self-control to be among their highest virtues. Both had similar
beliefs about the world, destiny, heaven and hell, and the immortality
of the soul. Their conceptions of the battles between good and evil were
almost identical, with Christianity adopting millennial epochs that
were integral to Mithraism from Zoroastrianism. "They both admitted to
the existence of a heaven inhabited by beautiful ones ... and a hell
peopled by demons situate in the bowels of earth." (Cumont, 191) Both
religions placed a flood at the beginning of history, and both believed
in revelation as key to their doctrine. Both awaited the last judgment
and resurrection of the dead after the final conflagration of the
universe. Christ and Mithra were both referred to directly as the
"Logos" (Larson 184).
It is probable that Christianity emphasized common features that
attracted Mithra followers, perhaps the crucifix appealed to those
Mithra followers who had crosses already branded on their foreheads. In
art, the halo was a well-known depiction of Mithra, a true sun god, but
which also depicts Christ in the same way. However, the similarities
were an embarrassment, and differences such as star gazing were
persecuted as heresy. Trypho wrote that "Justin Martyr declared that in a
certain cave near Bethlehem ... Mary brought forth the Christ ... those
who presided over the mysteries of Mithras were stirred up by the devil
to say that in a place called among them a cave, they were initiated by
them" (LXXVIII). Tertullian seems to have feared the parallels between
Mithraism and Christianity the most, demonizing Mithraism as a perverted
truth planted by the devil.
Mithraism Wikipedia
There were seven degrees of initiation, these degrees allowed the
neophyte to proceed through the seven celestial bodies. Allowing the
reversing of the human soul's descend into the world at birth.
The first degree was of corax (Raven) under Mercury. This stage
symbolized death of neophyte. In ancient Persia it was a custom to
expose dead bodies to be eaten by ravens on funeral towers.
Raven as symbol of death can also be seen in some tarot packs as card
13 instead of Grim Reaper [13=1+3=4=4th Dimension=Time - Grim
Reaper=Time.]
At this stage the neophyte dies and is re-born into a spiritual path.
A mantra was given to him to repeat and his sins were washed away by baptism in water.
The next degree is of Nymphus (male-bride) under Venus. The
neophyte wears a veil and carries a lamp in his hand. He is unable
to see the 'light of truth' until the 'veil of reality' is lifted. He is vowed
to the cult, and becomes celibate for at least duration of this stage.
He is a bride (lover) of Mithra. He also offers a cup of water to the
statute of Mithra, the cup is his heart and the water is his love.
On reaching Miles (solider) under Mars, the neophyte had to kneel
(submission to religious authority, naked (casting off old life),
blindfolded with hands tied. He was then offered a crown on the
point of a sword .
Once crowned, his binds were cut with a single
stroke of the sword and blindfold removed. This represented his
liberation from bondage's of the material world.
He would then remove the crown from his head and placing it on his shoulder,
saying: 'Mithra is my only crown'.
This also symbolizes the removing the head(intellect) itself, allowing Mithra to be the guide.
At this stage the neophyte starts the real battle against his lower
self, a solider is one actively struggles with the real enemy.
The stage of Leo (lion) is first of the senior degrees and is under
Jupiter. He is entering the element of fire. Therefore the lions were
not allowed to touch water during the ritual, and instead honey was
offered to the initiate to wash his hands and anoint his tongue. The
lions carry the food for the ritual meal that was prepared by the lower
grades to the ritual feast, and take part. Lions duties included
attending the sacred altar flame. The ritual feast representedMithras
last supper of bread and wine with his companions, before his ascend to
the heavens in Sun's chariot.
The degree of Perses (Persian) under moon, The initiate to this
grade obtained through it an affiliation to that race which alone was
worthy of receiving the highest revelations of wisdom of Magi
(Fanz Cumont, Rapport sur une mission a Rome, in Academic des inscrition et Belles-Letters, Comptes Rendes, 1945 p.418).
The emblem for this stage was a harpe, the harpe that Persus
decapitated the Gorgon. Symbolizing the destruction of the lower and
animal aspect of the initiate.
The initiate was also purified with honey as he was under the protection of the Moon. Honey is
associated with purity and fertility of the moon as this was, in
ancient Iran believed to be the source of honey, and thus the
expression of honey-moon denotes not the period of a month after
marriage, but continued love and fertility in married life.
- Dr. Masoud Homayouri Origin of Persian Gnosis
In grade of Heliodromus (sun runner) under sun, the initiate imitates
Sun at the ritual banquet. Sitting next to Mithra (Father), dressed in
red, color of sun, fire and blood of life.
Highest grade was of Pater (father) under Saturn. He was Mithras
earthly representative, light of heaven embodied, the teacher of
congregation which he lead, wearing a redcap and as well as a red
baggy Persian trousers, carrying a staff symbol of his spiritual
office. (Charles Daniels, Mithras and his temples on the Wall).
Una representación de algunos de los cristos antiguos más comunes, 
The comparison between the Babylonian goddess Ishtar and the Jewish maiden Mary becomes even more evident when it is factored in that in an ancient Akkadian hymn Ishtar is called "Virgin."
Comprising the entombment for three days, the descent into the underworld, and the resurrection, the spring celebration of "Easter" represents the period of the vernal equinox, when the sun is "hung on a cross" composed of the days and nights of equal length. After a touch-and-go battle for supremacy with the night or darkness, the sun emerges triumphant, being "born again" or "resurrected" as a "man," moving towards "his" full strength at the summer solstice...
The "Sun of Righteousness" refers to Jesus Christ, as purportedly prophesied in the last book before the New Testament, Malachi (4:2). Christ's identification as the "Sun of Righteousness," the placement of his "resurrection" at Easter, and his association with the "sun all glorious in the east," all reflect his solar role, serving as earmarks of Jesus himself being a sun god. Indeed, "Easter" or the vernal equinox truly represents the resurrection of the "Light of the World" - the sun - bringing with it the fertility of spring.
Discussing Attis along with his consort/mother Cybele (the "Metroac" cult/mysteries), Dr. Andrew T. Fear, a professor of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Manchester, remarks:
The festival associated with Cybele and Attis, called the "Megalensia," was celebrated specifically in the spring, with a passion play commemorating Attis's death and resurrection.
It is probable that the Attis rites were celebrated long before Christianity was recognized to any meaningful extent. Certainly, since they are mysteries, they could have been celebrated but not recorded previously, especially in pre-Christian times, when the capital punishment for revealing such mysteries was actually carried out. We have seen cautious reticence expressed on the part of the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484-c. 425 BCE), for example, who declined to reveal the mysteries of Osiris he had witnessed. Herodotus's concerns would not be misplaced, as evidenced by the "witchhunt" that ensued within his lifetime regarding the Athenian politician Alcibiades (c. 450-404 BCE), who was accused of "profaning the Mysteries" and was sentenced to death for his alleged transgressions.
In his discussion of this retelling of myths, Porter recounts the comments by ancient Greek writer Diodorus Siculus (c. 90-27 BCE) that the Egyptian gods are called by many names, such as various Greek counterparts. He then addresses the Orphic myths, which include that of the Greek god Dionysus, "first developed around the sixth century BC in the east."
Next Porter relates the story of the Egyptian god Horus's resurrection from death as recounted by Diodorus (1.25.6), adding:
Easter is "Pessach" in Hebrew, "Pascha" in Greek, "Pachons" in Latin and "Pa-Khonsu" in Egyptian, "Khonsu" being an epithet for the sun god Horus. In Anglo-Saxon, Easter or Eostre is goddess of the dawn, corresponding to Ishtar, Astarte, Astoreth and Isis. The word "Easter" shares the same root with "east" and "eastern," the direction of the rising sun.
In the gospel tale, there are two dates for the crucifixion: the 14th and the 15th of the month of Nisan, and within Christianity the date for Easter was debated for centuries. There continue to be two dates for Easter: the Western Catholic and Eastern Orthodox, thus demonstrating that this holiday is not the historical date of the actual crucifixion of a particular man. The dates are, in fact, astronomical, astrological and astrotheological.
By around 1500 
Like so many gods, Mithra was the light and power behind the sun. In Babylon, Mithra was identified with Shamash, the sun god, and he is also Bel, the Mesopotamian and Canaanite/ Phoenician solar deity, who is likewise Marduk, the Babylonian god who represented both the planet Jupiter and the sun. According to Pseudo-Clement of Rome's debate with Appion (Homily VI, ch. X), Mithra is also Apollo.
From a number of discoveries, including pottery, inscriptions and temples, we know that Roman Mithraism gained a significant boost and much of its shape between 80 and 120 AD/CE, when the first artifacts of this particular cultus begin to be found at Rome. It reached a peak during the second and third centuries, before largely expiring at the end of the fourth/beginning of fifth centuries. Among its members during this period were emperors, politicians and businessmen. Indeed, before its usurpation by Christianity Mithraism enjoyed the patronage of some of the most important individuals in the Roman Empire. In the fifth century, the emperor Julian, having rejected his birth-religion of Christianity, adopted Mithraism and "introduced the practise of the worship at Constantinople." (Schaff-Herzog, VII, 423)
In discussing what may have been recounted by ancient writers asserted to have written many volumes about Mithraism, such as Eubulus of Palestine and "a certain Pallas," Dr. Beck remarks: "Certainly Zoroaster would have figured largely; and so would the Persians and the magi." It seems that the ancients themselves did not divorce the eastern roots of Mithraism, as exemplified also by the remarks of Dio Cassius, who related that in 66 AD/CE the king of Armenia, Tiridates, visited Rome. Cassius states that the dignitary worshipped Mithra; yet, he does not indicate any distinction between the Armenian's religion and Roman Mithraism.
icon. However, the Persian Mithra apparently developed differently in various places, such as in Armenia, where there appeared to be emphasis on characteristics not overtly present in Roman Mithraism but found as motifs within Christianity, including the Virgin Mother Goddess. This Armenian Mithraism is evidently a continuity of the Mithraism of Asia Minor and the Near East. This development of gods taking on different forms, shapes, colors, ethnicities and other attributes according to location, era and so on is not only quite common but also the norm. Thus, we have hundreds of gods and goddesses who are in many ways interchangeable but who have adopted various differences based on geographical and environmental factors.
He ascended to heaven. 
The claim about the Roman Mithras's birth on "Christmas" is evidently based on the Calendar of Filocalus or Philocalian Calendar (c. 354 AD/CE), which mentions that December 25th represents the "Birthday of the Unconquered," understood to refer to the sun and taken to indicate Mithras as Sol Invictus. Whether it represents Mithras's birthday specifically or "merely" that of Emperor Aurelian's Sol Invictus, with whom Mithras has been identified, the Calendar also lists the day—the winter solstice birth of the sun—as that of natus Christus in Betleem Iudeae: "Birth of Christ in Bethlehem Judea."
The same may be said as concerns another Persian or Zoroastrian winter celebration called "Yalda," which is the festival of the Longest Night of the Year, taking place on December 20th or the day before the solstice:
As the "rock-born," Mithras was called "Theos ek Petras," or the "God from the Rock." As Weigall also relates:
For example, Dr. Badi Badiozamani says that a "person" named "Mehr" or Mithra was "born of a virgin named Nahid Anahita ('immaculate')" and that "the worship of Mithra and Anahita, the virgin mother of Mithra, was well-known in the Achaemenian period [558-330 BCE]..." (Badiozamani, 96) Philosophy professor Mohammed Ali Amir-Moezzi states: "Dans le mithraïsme, ainsi que le mazdéisme populaire, (A)Nāhīd, mère de Mithra/Mehr, est vierge"—"In Mithraism, as in popular Mazdaism, Anahid, the mother of Mithra, is a virgin." (Amir-Moezzi, 78-79) Comparing the rock birth with that of the virgin mother, Dr. Amir-Moezzi also says:
Anahita, also known as "Anaitis"—whose very name means "Pure" and "Untainted" and who was equated in antiquity with the virgin goddess Artemis—is certainly an Indo-Iranian goddess of some antiquity, dating back at least to the first half of the first millennium prior to the common era and enjoying "widespread popularity" around Asia Minor. Indeed, Anahita has been called "the best known divinity of the Persians" in Asia Minor. (de Jong, 268)
The theme of the teaching god and "the Twelve" is found within Mithraism, as Mithra is depicted as surrounded by the 12 zodiac signs on a number of monuments and in the writings of Porphyry (4.16), for one. These 12 signs are sometimes portrayed as humans and, as they have been in the case of numerous sun gods, could be called Mithra's 12 "companions" or "disciples."
Augustine, Firmicus, Justin, Tertullian, and others, having perceived the exact resemblance between the religion of Christ and the religion of Mithra, did, with an impertinence only to be equalled by its outrageous absurdity, insist that the devil, jealous and malignant, induced the Persians to establish a religion the exact image of Christianity that was to be—for these worthy saints and sinners of the church could not deny that the worship of Mithra preceded that of Christ—so that, to get out of the ditch, they summoned the devil to their aid, and with the most astonishing assurance, thus accounted for the striking similarity between the Persian and the Christian religion, the worship of Mithra and the worship of Christ; a mode of getting rid of a difficulty that is at once so stupid and absurd, that it would be almost equally stupid and absurd seriously to refute it.
Comment: See also:
Who Wrote the Bible
and The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian Origins by Burton L. Mack
and The Most Dangerous Cult in The World
and Gnosticism and the Christian Myth